【Abstract】Traditional Chinese historiography is the crown of the world. From the beginning of the 20th century to the end of the 1970s, Chinese historical research gradually introduced the Marxist materialist view of history, formed a modern historiography with class struggle as the main line, and achieved brilliant achievements beyond traditional historiography. In the 1980s and 1990s, Chinese historiography developed on the one hand, but on the other hand, there were also serious deficiencies and lessons. Chinese historiography in the new era should be a narrative science and a study of the general trend of social development centering on the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation. To this end, in the coming period, Chinese historical research must adhere to the people's position, study domestic history on the basis of the historical study of ownership, and study world history with the history of the United States, the history of the international communist movement, and the history of world technology as the main objects. Only in this way can We creatively develop Marxist historiography.
The people-oriented thinking in the ancient Chinese classic "Shang Shu" is already quite close to the Marxist concept of the history of the people's heroes. Although since the Zhou Qin Dynasty, the working people have always been exploited and oppressed classes, the founders of successive dynasties have actually had such flesh-and-blood ties with the working people, which can enable the working people to recuperate and recuperate, and then create a situation of "universal happiness" such as the rule of Wenjing, the rule of Zhenguan, and the prosperity of Kangqian. The reason for this is that some people in the ruling class, through resistance movements such as slave uprisings and peasant wars, more or less realize that the people have become an indispensable cornerstone for maintaining political rule, and the interests of the people cannot be shaken. In modern times, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement, the Wushu ReformAtion, the Boxer Rebellion, the Pingliu Li Uprising, the Guangzhou Uprising, and the Wuchang Uprising constituted the key forces that promoted the end of China's feudal imperial rule. Yuan Shikai's betrayal of the revolution, the division of warlords, the loss of power and humiliation of the country at the Paris Peace Conference led to the emergence of the Yuan Revolution and the May Fourth Movement in China, the proletariat began to appear on the Chinese political stage, and the people's revolution even moved forward. The October Revolution brought Marxism-Leninism to China with the sound of a cannon. The founding of the Communist Party of China, as the antithesis of feudalism, imperialism and capitalism, gave the Chinese revolution a new look. After the First and Second Civil Revolutionary Wars, the War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression, and the War of Liberation, the Communist Party of China finally seized power and established New China. Since then, through stable finance and economics, the First Five-Year Plan, and the transformation of socialist industry and commerce, New China has rapidly transitioned from a new democratic country to a socialist country, laying the foundation for China's modernization and the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation. Looking at the process of historical development, there is no other process that can so clearly reflect the correct view of the history of the people's heroes! No other process can reflect so clearly the importance of sticking to the people's position! Then, when New China is closer to the great rejuvenation of the nation than ever before due to its 70 years of development, what kind of history do we need? [1] What exactly is the science of historical research? [2] How exactly does historical research serve the country's strategic approach? [3]
I. A Brief History of Chinese Historiography Before the 21st Century
(1) Chinese historiography before the 20th century
China has had historical officials since ancient times and continued until the Qing Dynasty. Since ancient times, the ruling classes of successive dynasties have attached great importance to the history of official cultivation. However, since Confucius deleted the Book of Shang, the Spring and Autumn Period, and Zuo Qiuming's Biography of the Zuo Clan in the Spring and Autumn Period, private historical revision works have become commonplace. Many of the official revision histories in the Twenty-Four Histories also absorbed materials from private revision histories. In addition to official history and private history, ancient Chinese history can also be divided into two major schools: historian and examination. The revision of history is a project full of contradictions, among which there are mainly the contradiction between the authenticity of history and the need to obey the needs of the ruling class, the contradiction between the complexity of the historical process, the grandeur of the goal and the personal intellectual energy, the contradiction between the authenticity and falsity of historical materials, the contradiction of partial perfection, the contradiction between the details of writing, the contradiction between tasks and time, and so on. Because of these contradictions, there are always various limitations in ancient Chinese history books, but it is undeniable that the revision of history will still bring huge social benefits. The revision of history is inseparable from examination. The identification and selection of historical materials is extremely complex and time-consuming, for example, comparing direct historical materials and indirect historical materials, official records and folk records, domestic records and foreign records, near and distant records, skills and side references, direct and hidden statements, oral historical materials and written historical materials, etc. Taking Yan Guoqing's advocacy of Hebei in the Anshi Rebellion as an example, there are 7 kinds of cited books, and the number of examination texts is as high as 2573 words. [4]
Before the 20th century, Chinese historiography had been following its own trajectory. The compilation of various Confucian classics, the Twenty-Four Histories, and the Zizhi Tongjian made ancient China the most developed country in the world in historiography. Although ancient Europe also had history, it was not comparable to ancient Chinese history, and it was not until the 19th century that history gained an independent scientific status. [5] [6] Not unrelated to the development of history, the Chinese nation has become a nation with a high degree of creativity and resilience. In the early years of the Qing Dynasty in the mid-17th century, China's population reached 150 million, and by the end of the 18th century, the population had exceeded 300 million, making it the most populous country in the world. Han Chinese settlements have expanded to some frontier areas previously inhabited by ethnic minorities. [7] No country in the world has a long and splendid civilization similar to China's. In the 19th century, China under the Qing Dynasty began to decline, accompanied by "social instability" such as famine and peasant revolution. In the more than 100 years since then, the peasant movement has risen one after another, and the Western powers have invaded many times, and the plundering of China has intensified, making the Chinese nation to the point of national subjugation and extinction. [8] Saving the Chinese nation and trying to survive became the only choice for the Chinese nation, and the trend of "social transformation" flourished. [9] As a result, a new chapter will be opened in Chinese historiography.
(2) Chinese historiography from the beginning of the 20th century to the beginning of the War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression
After the Opium War, the Foreign Affairs Movement, the Qing government's dispatch of overseas students, the writings of Lin Zexu and Wei Yuan, and the overseas exile of benevolent people and heroes all made Chinese begin to "open their eyes to the world." On the basis of the "Chronicle of the Four Continents" supported by Lin Zexu, Wei Yuan's "Chart of the Sea Kingdom" written in 1842 broke the concept of "Heavenly Dynasty Theory" and put forward the idea of "Master Yi long skills to control Yi". Zheng Guanying's "Dangerous Words of the Prosperous World", published in 1894, is actually a summary of the Western social system as a plan for China's prosperity and national salvation. At the beginning of the 20th century, in the face of internal and external troubles, Chinese began to put forward their own theoretical propositions, and the historical concept of Chinese also changed. Many emerging historians regard "social transformation" as a fundamental method for solving social problems. As early as 1990, Zhang Taiyan's "Outline of the General History of China" had already expressed a rather systematic view on the purpose, style, and even specific titles of the newly compiled general history of China, holding that the new historiography should be devoted to "understanding the track of evolution in ancient and modern times," "boosting morale," and innovating from the old. In September 1901, Liang Qichao published "Narrative of Chinese History" in the Qinghui Bao, issuing a cry for a new way to write "Chinese history". He pointed out that the main difference in the characteristics of the old and new historiography is that:"The former historian only records the facts, and the historians of the recent world must explain the relationship between the facts and their antecedents and consequences; the former historians only record the rise and fall of one or two powerful people in the world, although they are called historical facts, but the genealogy of one person and one family, and the historians of the recent world must explore the movement and progress of the whole world, that is, the experience of the whole people, and their mutual relations." [10] Since then, the study of social issues, the exploration of social transformation programs, and the answer to questions such as "where is China going" have increasingly become the consensus of historians. The study of Chinese history is no longer just a lesson for the governance of capital, but has begun to be closely integrated with the destiny of the country and the nation.
However, the development of new historical research has been full of twists and turns. The first to emerge in the field of historiography is a new historiography characterized by the theory of evolution. [11] In 1902, Liang Qichao proposed: "Historians, those who describe the phenomenon of the evolution of the population and seek their axioms. [12] The new historians recognized that the object of historical study was no longer limited to a few heroes such as emperors and generals, but to the history of the evolution of all mankind, including ordinary people. Zhang Taiyan wrote to Liang Qichao in 1902, arguing that the work of General History of China "should mainly invent the principle of socio-political evolution and decline". Xia Zengyou once lamented that in recent times, "As for reading modern history, the clothes are ruined, the cultural relics are swept away, the immortals are planted, the world sighs, and I don't know what to do, it will follow the mistakes of Egypt and India." ”[13]。 Chinese evolutionary historiography is "short-lived", stuck in bourgeois ideology, not an objective social history based on changes in the mode of production advocated by the materialist view of history,[14] and has not had a far-reaching impact on universities, but they undoubtedly paved the way for the further development of Chinese historiography.
When the West gave birth to the historiographical revolution in the 19th century due to the birth of Marxism, the Chinese historical circles still retained a strong tradition of examination and evidence, and doubted the ancient times by the progress of examination evidence. Between 1917 and 1949, the Skeptical School held almost all of the chaires in the field of history in Chinese universities. [15] Although evidence is learning, in the era of national ruin and family death, society's expectation of history is no longer to doubt the ancient, but to indicate the direction of social development. Ding Zeliang commented: "In the twenty years from May Fourth to the beginning of the War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression, the academic circles throughout the country can be said to have completely immersed themselves in this analytical work, and everyone misunderstood history and historiography, thinking that it was examination evidence and proofreading. As for the general picture of our history and the contours of our culture, no one can say clearly. [16] This is not to say that China in this period did not have general historical works that attempted to describe social transformation, but that they generally failed to meet the needs of social transformation, and in particular the need to use Marxism to transform society.
China's social development urgently needs works of General History of China that reflect the grand concept of history and serve social transformation. After China began to systematically accept Marxism, a large number of figures and writings that used Marxism to study Chinese history inevitably emerged. Li Dazhao began to contact socialist thought and Marxist theory at an early stage. If we say in the article "A Comparative View of the Franco-Russian Revolution" (1918), "the record of the general psychological expression of the historian is also." Therefore, the history of authority is enough to shake the hearts of billions of people, and only the history of the hearts of billions of people can be written, and the authority that shakes the hearts of billions of people is only challenging the school of examination and the school of doubting the ancient school of Chinese history,[17] Then, when he proposed that "Marx was the one who invented the true meaning of history", he had become the first person in China to advocate the use of the materialist view of history to guide historical research. [18] At the same time, Lu Xun and Chen Duxiu both issued calls to transform society. Lu Xun pointed out in "How We Are Fathers Now" (1919): "Therefore, people who have awakened are more and more aware of the task of transforming society." In 1919, Chen Duxiu pointed out in "New Youth": "I dare to say that the most progressive politics must be to put social issues in an important position, and everything else is idle. [19] In 1920, Li Yinqing said in his article "Materialistic View of History and the History of Science": "To explain the historical changes in human society, whether it is to take material conditions as the center or the economic situation as the center, is it not the same name and the material life of human beings as the initiative? [20] In 1929, He Bingsong said in the Historical Research Law that history "is the activity of mankind in the past", summarizing historical activities into five major aspects: economy, politics, education, art and religion. [21] It can be seen that historians of this period consciously or unconsciously accepted Marx's view of historical materialism and began to look at social phenomena from the perspective of material production. Although most of these theories do not recognize that "class struggle is the real driving force of historical development", the social science point of view of history around social transformation has emerged, that is, history and social science have "married". In this way, materialism will inevitably become the research paradigm of Chinese historiography, and Marxist historiography will inevitably become the mainstream of Chinese historiography in the 20th century.
(3) Chinese historiography from the beginning of the War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression to the founding of the People's Republic of China
Before the anti-Japanese war began, the stronghold of the Chinese revolution had been moved to Yan'an. The Chinese Communists, represented by Mao Zedong, deeply understood the importance and urgency of historical research and practiced the study of history. Mao Zedong's "The Chinese Revolution and the Chinese Communist Party," completed in December 1939, laid out the historical materialist view that "in China's feudal society, only this class struggle of the peasants, the peasant uprising, and the peasants' war are the real driving force for historical development." He also revealed the fact that Chinese capitalism had developed somewhat, but could not have developed by leaps and bounds, thus falling into a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society, and the inevitability of China's armed revolution. It was on the basis of this historical analysis that Mao Zedong clearly defined the object of the new-democratic revolution, the form of the revolution, the tasks of the revolution, the motive force of the revolution, the nature of the revolution, and the future of the revolution. Although this analysis made by Mao Zedong is national, it profoundly reflects the changes that Marxism has brought about in the study of Chinese and Western historiography: (1) from the study of isolated and political events-based history to the complex and long-term process of society and economy; (2) from the subjective motives of studying the occurrence of historical events to the material reasons behind them; (3) from the study of emperors, heroes and outstanding figures to the formation of classes and the changes in class contradictions. [22] The 23,000-word "The Chinese Revolution and the Communist Party of China" highly summarizes the main tasks, development directions, and development momentums of Chinese society during the War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression, which inevitably depends on the study of China's general history, especially the study of the "rise and fall of chaos" and the "canonical system".
Mao Zedong attached great importance not only to the history of the Communist Party itself, but also to the study of ancient Chinese history, hoping to write a new ancient history guided by Marxism on this basis. In October 1938, Mao Zedong stressed in "On the New Stage" that "studying our historical heritage and using Marxist methods to give a critical summary is another task of our study... Inheriting a legacy, turning it into a method, is an important help in guiding the great movement of the day. [23] Against this background, the publication of a new general history of China emerged in large numbers, at least 26, from the beginning of the late Qing Dynasty to the outbreak of the War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression in 1937. [24] However, at that time, all sectors of Chinese society, which were "stabbed by the times, wanted to establish the foundation of nationalism, and wanted to read a general history of China" were "suffering from the lack of books". [25] Miao Fenglin's "Outline of The General History of China", Zhang Lan's "General History of China", Deng Zhicheng's "Two Thousand Years of Chinese History" published before the War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression, Zhou Gucheng's "General History of China" (1939), Qian Mu's "Outline of National History" (1940), and Lü Simian's "General History of China" (published in 1940 and 1944 respectively) published after the War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression, etc., although they all made great efforts, most of them used new methods to sort out the old country's past, which was seriously out of touch with social reality, and all had the aspect of maintaining the existing political system. [26] In 1945, Gu Jiegang also criticized the general history of China as "mostly uniform and copied from each other" and listed historical facts and lacked insights. [27] From these aspects alone, the social need for a new monograph on the general history of China has arisen.
In Yan'an, this need for a "new" general history led to the publication of the Compendium of General History of China. In 1940, Fan Wenlan began to compile a "historical reading book for cadres to study", the General History of China. [28] The first volume (from ancient times to the fifth dynasty) was published in September 1941, and the middle volume (Song Liao to the Opium War) was published in December 1942, collectively known as the Compendium of the General History of China. The next volume, published in 1946, completes only the Opium Wars to the Boxer Rebellion. The Compendium of General History of China expresses views on national history in a straightforward manner, which actually constitutes a "textualization", "academicization" and "concretization" of Mao Zedong's historical views, which greatly unifies the understanding of Chinese history and Chinese politics within the CCP. Mao Zedong commented on the General History of China: "We Communists not only have our views on the history of our country for thousands of years, but also write a systematic and complete general history of China. This shows that our Communist Party of China has a say in the history of its own country for thousands of years and has also come up with scientific works. [29] Although the Compendium of the General History of China is still insufficient, it is the most inappropriate for those who are talented and sparse, and who are cumbersome and knowledgeable. It is undeniable that the Compendium of General History of China contains viewpoints in historical facts and implements the Marxist philosophy of materialist dialectics. Later generations commented: "The editions of the Compendium of General History of China became the 'mother book' for the later compilation of various national history textbooks, and with the help of various channels, layer by layer, they shaped the memory of national history of several generations, and produced an endless impact." [30]
(4) Historiography of New China from 1949 to 2000
1. 1949-1976 period
After New China implemented measures such as stabilizing finance and economics, resisting US aggression and aiding Korea, and the First Five-Year Plan, further resolving ideological problems in the historical, literary and artistic circles was put on the agenda of the CPC. In 1954, China launched a large-scale critical movement of Hu Shi thought. After the consolidation of national power, it is no doubt natural that the Chinese Communist Party began to strengthen the leadership of the ideological circles. [31] As far as the historical circles are concerned, this means the loss of power of the historical line of the Republic of China represented by the skeptical school and the establishment of the dominant position of Marxist historiography.
Chinese historiography in the period 1949-1976 discussed many major issues based on the materialist view of history. Among them, the problem of the periodization of ancient Chinese history, the problem of China's feudal land system, the problem of peasant war in China's feudal society, the problem of the budding of Chinese capitalism, and the formation of the Han nationality are known as the "five golden flowers" of the study of new Chinese history. [32] Although there is no complete agreement on some issues,[33] one of their outstanding commonalities is the shift from the examination of historiography to the interpretation of history from the point of view of social material production. Moreover, some views on social history further deepened and developed Marx's materialist view of history. For example, Hou Wailu argues that although "the combined relationship between special means of production and special laborers determines a certain socio-economic composition, the sign of the dominance of the mode of production is often reflected through the legal form of the superstructure." What is particularly commendable is that the Chinese historiography of this period, with Marxist historiography as the main body, served China's socialist industrial and commercial transformation and socialist construction to the greatest extent. Among them, the discussion of the way land privatization in feudal society (one is from the share of community members to the private land of individual peasants, and the other is from the state dividing and rewarding land to private real estate) is still of great practical significance to the problem of Ownership Structure in China today.
After the reform and opening up, some historians also believe that Chinese historiography in this period deviated from the direction of social development due to its high politicization and should be "thoroughly liquidated." This view is not true. In fact, some people use the name of rethinking "history and the Cultural Revolution" to negate the reality of history. It is said that Fan Wenlan later proposed that "class society is composed of opposing ruling classes and ruled classes, breaking the dynastic system, erasing the emperors and generals, and only talking about the activities of the masses of the people, as a result, only the peasant war is left in a piece of Chinese history, and the whole history is canceled." [34][35] If Fan Wenlan raises such a question, he must have specifically referred to it, not a repudiation of his Compendium of the General History of China. Emperors and generals are certainly part of ancient Chinese history, but they have largely passed away with the wind. Moreover, marxist historiography, represented by Fan Wenlan's Compendium of general histories of China, has not erased the emperors and generals, otherwise, how can we understand the peasant war? How did "talking only about the activities of the masses of the people" lead to "only peasant wars left in one part of Chinese history" and how did it lead to "the cancellation of the whole history"? Therefore, even if Fan Wenlan had expressed such a view, it was not a reversal of the case for the historiography with the activities of the emperor and the general and the talented and beautiful people as the core!
2. 1977-2000 period
The historiography of this period continues the view of history in the early period. Many older generations of Marxist historians still exert far-reaching influence at this stage. For example, guo Moruo's "Draft History of China" continued to be revised after the Cultural Revolution. The General History of China edited by Fan Wenlan was developed into a 12-volume General History of China under the continued editing of Cai Meibiao. Bai Shouyi's 12-volume, 22-volume, 14-million-word General History of China was published in 1999. The Outline of Chinese History edited by Zhai Bozan and the Outline of Chinese History edited by Shang Yu were also published successively after revision during this period. On the other hand, due to changes in the judgment of social contradictions, Chinese historiography began to undergo subtle changes. After the reform and opening up, China has denied the view that "class contradictions are the main contradictions in Chinese society.". Focusing on the fundamental issue of the driving force of historical development, many viewpoints have emerged in society, such as "the productive forces and the struggle for production are the fundamental driving force for historical development", "the contradictory movement of the productive forces and the relations of production is the driving force for the historical development of society", "science and technology is the only driving force for social development", and so on. Chinese historiography has undergone a quiet transformation from the "revolutionary paradigm" with the "dynamic view of class struggle" as the core to the "modernization paradigm" with economic construction as the core. This may seem to be the research agenda of Marxist historiography, but in fact, its content is gradually detached from the orthodox view of Marxism.
Indeed, in the 1980s, Chinese historiography began to shift from the study of political movements to the study of the mechanism of the development of social productive forces; from singing praises and praises to politicians to erecting monuments to agronomists, entrepreneurs, and businessmen; from summarizing the causes and processes of revolution to analyzing the mechanism of social development. In the 1990s, the study of Chinese history took another step towards vulgarization, "and has begun to return to the initial stage of modern Chinese historiography, the main feature of which is 'back to the Year of Fu Si'." [36] But this is clearly not a return in the right direction. Some people believe that after the 1990s, Chinese historiography not only parted ways with traditional historiography, but also bid farewell to the post-"Cultural Revolution" historiography of the 1980s, and finally walked out of the shadow of politicization and ideology, began a real discourse transformation and paradigm transformation, and historiography is returning to its own position. [37] The rise of the market economy has caused a "historiographical crisis" in which many young scholars "write for rice sorghum". [38] At one time, a large-scale phenomenon of commercialization and marketization emerged in the field of history teaching and scientific research, and there was a "degeneration from so-called 'popular history' to 'entertainment history'". [39]
In the past 20 years, the research direction of the Examination School has resurfaced, and the most significant manifestation is the rise of the "return to Qianjia" trend of thought and the revival of "Guoxue". [40] At the end of 1994, Hu Sheng pointed out: "It is not excluded that some people have tried to use the dubious concept of 'Sinology' to achieve the goal of abandoning the new socialist culture outside of Chinese culture." At the same time, under the influence of the Western social science research paradigm, Chinese historiography is increasingly inclined to use many extraterritorial views to solve the current practical dilemma, and the reality may be fundamentally divorced from the Western research background and class bias. In this context, the localization of Chinese history has been greatly impacted, and the social status of historiography has repeatedly declined. And in the final analysis, is this kind of historical research essentially in the service of establishing a market economy?
There is no doubt that some issues in the modernization drive, such as the building of democracy and the legal system, the building of anti-corruption and clean government, the peasant issue, and the issue of industrial and agricultural relations, can be learned by the study of Chinese history. [41] However, the historical study of the class struggle after the reform and opening up lacks overall relevance and universal significance, so that it travels between fragments. [42] This is both a refinement and deepening of research and a departure from Marxist historiography because it has not grasped the main contradiction of things. Some scholars have pointed out that the predecessors, whether from the meticulous analysis of historical materials or the construction of the basic conceptual framework, have laid a solid foundation for the relative self-consistency and integrity of the ancient history interpretation system, and the result is naturally that the conclusions of ancient history have emerged, while the new theories of modern history are frequently found. [43] The reason for this is probably that the study of Chinese history after the reform and opening up has gone astray by abandoning too much of the concept of the historical dynamics of class struggle. Chinese historiography in the 20th century "importing the theory of evolution is a great progress; importing the materialist view of history is a greater progress." [44] In the 20 years after the reform and opening up, the above problems arose in The study of Chinese historiography and did not make due progress, probably because it was a regression from historical materialism.
Why is this regression happening? In post-1949 China, although it seems that a basic consensus has been formed to adhere to Marxist historical materialism, different views on historical materialism have provided an ideological basis for the development of historiography that deviates from historical materialism. There is a view that the class struggle must be negated, and in particular the view that there is still a sharp class struggle in socialist society. [45] However, the collapse of the Soviet Union and the upheavals in Eastern Europe show that there has been a sharp class struggle in socialist society for a long time. There may be both Khrushchev ignorance and Gorbachev-style intention. The former may be "pouring foot wash water to pour out the child", while the latter is "no need for children". Xi Jinping pointed out that China "must not make strategic and subversive mistakes." [46] From the point of view of Marxist political science, the so-called subversive risk is that the bourgeoisie will replace the proletariat and take power in China. If Chinese historiography continues to dilute the class struggle, it may not be able to play its proper function!
Second, mainstream history is the study of the general trend of social development
Today's world is experiencing major changes unprecedented in a century, and various opportunities and challenges coexist, which also puts forward new tasks and requirements for the development of Chinese history. There is no doubt that only historiography that is closely linked to social reality is a historiography with vitality, and only historians with a strong sense of social responsibility are historians with great achievements. [47] Therefore, in the context of the ever-changing times, it is particularly necessary for history to reveal the general trend of social development.
Social development has a certain degree of uncertainty and unpredictability, but it is not blind, as the main body of history, the masses of the people can also understand the laws of history by exerting their own subjective initiative, and follow the laws of history to promote social development. According to Marx's dualistic framework of economic base-superstructure and productive forces-relations of production, social development is inevitably the development of productive forces, the development of production relations and the development of superstructure. These developments have undoubtedly been achieved in the context of domestic and international interactions. Chinese historiography needs to fully reflect all these aspects. As far as the discipline is concerned, the fundamental task of mainstream historiography is to reproduce past historical events, clarify the context of historical development, reveal the direction and driving force of historical development, and the specific process and reasons for historical development through the analysis and study of historical materials. Therefore, history is the study of the general trend of social development, which is not limited to objective narratives, but also always grasps the most essential characteristics and mainstream aspects of things, so as not to fall into complicated and intertwined details and "fragmented" historical facts.
In thousands of years of feudal society, the progress of the productive forces was relatively slow, so the records of material production in ancient Chinese historians were thinner and more concerned with dynastic change and political change, that is, the history of superstructure and production relations. Throughout China's thousand-year feudal history, the ruling class has long emphasized that "rebellion is unreasonable" and "revolution is guilty", and Chinese people can only rebel under the extreme conditions of "rebellion is death, and not rebellion is death". To a considerable extent, society has gradually developed in the process of such oppression, resistance and change. At the beginning of the 20th century, under the influence of the invasion of Western capitalism, many semi-feudal and semi-capitalist societies, semi-colonial and semi-feudal societies were faced with the choice of where to go. In order to save the people and survive, modern China has successively tried the model of constitutional monarchy, democratic republic and other political systems, and finally chose the model of the People's Republic, and basically established the socialist system at the end of 1956. In this social environment, many people with lofty ideals have translated and published relevant works to reflect the social development trend in Different Periods in China. Especially in the more than one hundred years from 1840 to 1976, the historical vision of the Chinese gradually focused on the class struggle. Mao Zedong's two articles, "Analysis of the Classes in Chinese Society" and "Report on the Investigation of the Peasant Movement in Hunan", published in November 1925 and March 1927, made a profound analysis of the revolutionary status of the proletariat, peasant class, national bourgeoisie, landlord and comprador class that existed in Chinese society at that time, and grasped the core and key to China's problems.
The stormy revolution has passed, and in today's socialist society, can the theory of class struggle still be used as the basic theory to guide the development of Chinese historiography? Mao Zedong said: "In the class struggle, some classes have triumphed and some classes have been eliminated. This is history, this is the history of civilization for thousands of years. He who interprets history from this point of view is called historical materialism, and the opposite of this view is historical idealism." [48] Only by describing and interpreting the past through the narrative of class struggle, and reconstructing the past, can we have a consistent understanding of history. It can be said that where there is no narrative of class struggle, there is no history. [49] After the reform and opening up, Chinese history has been afraid of class struggle, and some views have even tended to idealism, which is obviously not the proper meaning of historical materialism.
It can be said that the development process of the whole society is a history full of "breaking" and "standing", and contradictions are everywhere and everywhere. In this complex interweaving of contradictions, if historical researchers only see trees and forests, only social phenomena, and do not exhaust their roots, such as class struggle and national struggle, they will not be able to write historical materialist historical works that reveal the general trend of social development. And what kind of situation should the current development of Chinese historiography stand in? Marx's materialist view of history has pointed out the direction for us, and its foothold has always been the broad masses of the people. The people's position is an important principle that must be adhered to in the current and future development of Chinese historiography, and the bottom line that cannot be broken.
The agenda of Chinese historiography in the coming period
Today's Chinese historiography has crossed the era of genealogy, and the fundamental task facing it is no longer to make a genealogy for the emperors and generals, but to reveal how to be able to not forget the original intention, so as to help overcome the historical cycle law caused by the death of people and the government, and realize the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation. In order to accomplish this fundamental task, it is extremely necessary to establish the following research agenda.
(1) The research agenda of Chinese history
The study of Chinese history is first of all based on the development of Chinese history. There is no doubt that the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be built on a solid and reliable economic foundation. Based on Marxist political economy, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be based on public ownership. This at least poses the following tasks for the study of contemporary Chinese history:
First, Chinese historiography must strengthen the study of the history of Chinese ownership.
Chinese historiography needs to reveal China's long-standing public ownership civilization, the objective fact that private ownership of land was dominant in the late period of feudal society, and even more importantly, the historical fact that feudal private ownership is unsustainable due to the exploitation and oppression of peasants at the bottom. The ancient Chinese people have long had the ideal of "the journey of the avenue, the world is just" and "not suffering from widowhood, suffering from inequality". In feudal society, there was a large amount of public land. For example, in Hou Wailu's view, the "Qianshou Zishi Shitian", "Gongtian", "Kentian", "Guantian", "Tuntian", the "Zhantian" of the Western Jin Dynasty, the "Juntian" of the Northern Wei, the Northern Zhou, the Northern Qi and the Tang Dynasty were all state-owned lands. Hou Wailu believed that "the monarch is the main landowner", and it was not until the middle of the Ming Dynasty, with the emergence and growth of capitalism, that the feudal land state ownership system monopolized by the imperial power began to undergo qualitative changes. [50] Han Pan also believes that although the juntian system was destroyed in the middle and late Tang Dynasty, "under the form of manor land ownership, the feudal land state ownership system did not disintegrate,...... in the form of another imperial palace". [51] Feudal land nationalization played a vital role in rallying state power and reproducing Chinese civilization, especially in times of war and social turmoil, and the social utility of land nationalization was even more obvious. Mencius once said, "If the people are, there is no permanent birth, because there is no perseverance." There is no perseverance, let go of evil and extravagance, and do nothing. [52] Thus rulers of successive dynasties had to produce for the people. The state ownership of land just satisfies this requirement, enabling the landless and landless peasants to develop into a class of self-employed peasants. Because only a large number of self-employed farmers can make the country full of food and soldiers, strong and prosperous. At the beginning of the Tang Dynasty, the situation of social stability and national prestige and the rule of Zhenguan was probably also due to this to a certain extent.
Even if the private ownership of the landlord's large land has its inherent inevitability, its destructiveness and limitations are obvious. On the one hand, the landlords made the peasants bear heavy and heavy taxes through legal or illegal means, which made the ancient Chinese tax system obviously regressive; on the other hand, land annexation led to a high concentration of social wealth and land possession in the hands of a small number of bureaucratic land sovereigns, while the peasants became the targets of exploitation, and there was a situation in which "the rich have no place to live in the fields, and the poor have no place to stand". The Chimei, The Green Forest Uprising, the Yellow Turban Rebellion at the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the Wang Xianzhi of the Tang Dynasty, the Huangchao Uprising, the Fang la Uprising of the Song Dynasty, the Peasants' Uprising at the end of the Yuan Dynasty, the Li Zicheng Uprising at the end of the Ming Dynasty, and the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement of the Qing Dynasty all more or less reflected the social contradictions caused by the annexation of feudal land. Therefore, it is not difficult to understand that successive dynasties have devoted themselves to promoting "mergers and acquisitions and equalization of land". It can be seen that the problem of land ownership in the feudal period is inseparable from the objective facts of the class relations in feudal society, the division between the rich and the poor in society, the exploitation of peasants at the bottom, the peasant war, and the change of dynasties. If Chinese historiography does not deeply reveal the long-established civilization of public ownership and the harm of private ownership, it will be difficult to understand and confirm the great significance of public ownership and nationalization to socialist countries, and it will be difficult to adhere to the guidance of Marxist theory on the development trend of society.
The study of Chinese history also requires a profound understanding of the development of contemporary ownership on the basis of the study of ancient ownership. After the founding of New China, after the three major transformations of land reform and socialism in 1952, the rural land state ownership system was established by legislative means in 1954. The 1982 Constitution of the People's Republic of China clearly states that "the land of the city belongs to the state". The reason why the issue of land ownership was able to quickly attract attention and quickly become one of the "five golden flowers" is not only because "they are key issues in history", but also because they are key issues for the development of Socialism in China. For no economic agent can engage in its activities without a certain ownership of land. Land ownership is related to the distribution of major interests. Therefore, at present, the issue of land ownership is still an unavoidable major historical theoretical problem that has both academic and practical significance in the application of Marx's materialist view of history to study the process of Chinese history.
After the reform and opening up, the means of production have developed from relatively single land elements to land, capital, information, technology and other elements coexisting, and various production factors have transitioned from the original pure public ownership to a form of mixed ownership. Although the main position of public ownership has been established, it may still face the danger of subversion. With the rapid development of the market economy, to what extent this mixed ownership economy has met the development needs of China's socialist construction at the present stage, how the main position of public ownership can be upheld and consolidated under this system, how to understand the leading role of the state-owned economy, and what kind of development trend are various private components at present?
Second, Chinese historiography must strengthen the study of other important economic and social histories other than ownership.
The study of contemporary Chinese history is inseparable from the examination and analysis of other major issues, such as how to view the history of ancient Chinese monetary, and further, how to view Zhang Juzheng's monetization reform? The Ming Shi Food Chronicle records: "A whip law, including the conscription of a prefecture and county, measures the land, and the ding grain is lost to the official... All the quotas, distributions, the needs of the Beijing Treasury and the retention, the provision of hundreds of millions of fees, and the tribute of the earth, are all counted as one, and all acres of silver are counted and folded into officials, so it is called a whip. [53] Zhang Juzheng's "One Whip Law" enhanced the trend of silver monetization and promoted the comprehensive transformation of China's ancient fiscal system based on physical goods and labor into a monetary fiscal system dominated by silver currency. In the early Qing Dynasty, the "spreading of land into acres" actually followed the results of the monetary reform during the Wanli period. However, under the silver monetary economy at the end of the Ming Dynasty, the foundation of the old fiscal system was shaken, and the peasants suffered multiple exploitations, which, combined with the role of other factors, led to the demise of the Ming Dynasty. Although the silver standard monetary system pioneered by the Ming Dynasty lasted until its termination in 1935, the study of ancient monetary history still has great practical value for understanding the potential problems in China's economic development after the reform and opening up, such as excessive monetization of the economy and dollarization, resulting from upward pressure on prices, financial asset bubbles, and the import of foreign economic crises.
The centenary history of the Party is a major issue in the study of China's current history. In particular, how to view the economic development of New China from 1949 to 1976, how to objectively evaluate the "Cultural Revolution", how to understand the reform and opening up and its economic policies, how to go with Socialism with Chinese Characteristics, whether the structure of multiple ownership systems is sustainable, and whether the opening up to the outside world in the past can continue, are major issues that have a bearing on the present and involve the future, and all require Chinese history to make relevant research. In fact, in-depth thinking and study of these issues is the premise for truly analyzing history. Clarifying these major social issues has to rely on the understanding and implementation of historical materialism. Today, the scientific understanding of historical materialism can be tested by the century-old history, especially the strategy and effectiveness of the Communist Party of China in the past hundred years. Only by taking the Marxist materialist view of history as the guiding weapon can historians realistically clarify the nature and reason of China's contemporary development history. Only the modern Chinese civilization shaped on this basis can have its scientific nature and can withstand the test of the times and the people.
Third, Chinese historiography must strengthen the study of contemporary Chinese historical figures, which is what they are and what they are not, and completely eliminate the hiding place of historical nihilism.
History is created by the masses of the people, and although the objective laws of history are not subject to the will of some figures, some of them can play a decisive role in promoting, hindering, or even determining objective practice. Since the reform and opening up, there have been considerable differences in the evaluation of Mao Zedong, which has led to fierce social discussions about how to view the "first thirty years", how to view the history of the "Cultural Revolution", and how to evaluate the economic achievements and mistakes before 1978. As Lenin said: "In the analysis of any social problem, the absolute requirement of Marxist theory is to raise the problem within a certain historical scope. [54] If we only use the "Great Leap Forward" and the "Cultural Revolution" as excuses to negate the achievements of China's socialist construction under the leadership of Mao Zedong, and in essence also negate the practical rationality of China's taking the socialist road, we will no longer just "see the lonely trees as forests, and pick up sesame seeds as pearls", but smear heroes and vain leaders, and in essence fall into the trap of historical nihilism. In this regard, the collapse of the Soviet Union is not far off.
(2) Chinese history must strengthen the study of world history
In modern times, the history of the world has continuously developed from the history of the scattered and isolated peoples and countries to the history of interconnection. After World War II, the United States became a superpower, and for many countries, it became a beacon country in the world, which had a huge impact on the development of the world pattern. As a socialist country, China cannot but study the history of the United States, the laws of the international communist movement, and the history of science and technology in the world.
First, the study of American history. For the future evolution of world history and China's future development, where the United States will go is extremely important. There is no doubt that the national fortunes of the United States are heavily dependent on the external environment in which it is located, but it is also directly affected by its internal contradictions. As far as the existing research is concerned, China's study of American history has still not escaped the research agenda set by the Americans. To a large extent, this presuppositioned "research agenda" is to shape the image of America's mountain-top city and the world's lighthouse. If the contradictions in the United States have intensified extremely, then this image of a city on top of a mountain and a beacon of the world undoubtedly constitutes an illusion that deceives the people of all countries in the world. Therefore, the study of the aspects contained in the contradictions in the United States, the degree of intensification achieved, and the future development trend must undoubtedly become an extremely important aspect of China's research on American history. For a long time, the United States, as the world's police state and hegemonic country, has undoubtedly created huge contradictions with other countries in the world, including France, Germany, Japan, Afghanistan, Syria, Iraq and other countries. The intersection of these contradictions between external countries and between external contradictions and internal contradictions in the United States must also become an important part of the study of China's world history. It can be said that by grasping the history of the United States, we have also grasped the main aspects of the history of capitalist countries.
Second, the study of the history of the international communist movement. Since the publication of the Communist Manifesto, the international communist movement has a history of 173 years. The victory of the October Revolution of 1917 gave great impetus to the development of the international communist movement and the founding of the People's Republic of China. The founding of New China itself promoted the development of the international communist movement. It was in the process, however, that the communist movement in Russia, the cradle of the international communist movement of the 20th century, "quietly" declined after Stalin's death. In the severe international and domestic situation, where Russia, as the main body of the former Soviet Union, will go, whether the communist movement will rise again, and the active situation of the communist movement in the advanced capitalist countries under the intertwining of internal and external contradictions, these are all worth studying. As China is the only big socialist country in the world today, China's reform and opening up actually constitutes an important part of the history of the international communist movement. On the one hand, reform and opening up have greatly promoted the development of China's economy, on the other hand, it has also caused many people to have many questions. It is in this context that on October 18, 2017, General Secretary Xi Jinping first proposed in the report of the 19th National Congress of the Communist Party of China that "do not forget the original intention and keep the mission in mind", in the final analysis, it is to solve the problem of violating the original intention and mission within the party. [55] Although the history of China's reform and opening up can be studied as China's own history, how the history of China's reform and opening up is viewed by the historians of other countries can also constitute an important direction for the study of China's world history.
Third, the study of the history of science and technology in the world. The development of science and technology has increasingly become the decisive force for the development of productive forces, and China's scientific and technological development is still facing serious tasks. Scientific and technological development cannot be built behind closed doors, and China must be placed in the general environment of the world's scientific and technological development. Ancient China led the world in science and technology, and the 16th and 19th centuries began to decline. Western countries have changed the dark situation of the Middle Ages and walked in the forefront of science and technology in the world after two industrial revolutions (among which there is no lack of influence on Chinese culture and scientific and technological achievements). The history of science and technology in the world, especially in the history of Western science and technology, has emerged in an endless stream, mainly focusing on: How did science and technology in Western countries develop? What is worth learning from China? And which ones are not suitable for China? Has Western modern science and technology and even philosophical thought been strongly influenced by China? [56] Undoubtedly, there are many more questions to answer. It is worth noting that the inherent laws of scientific and technological development in various countries in the world may vary according to time, place and events, which requires Chinese historians to uphold the viewpoint of historical materialism and dialectical methods, so that historical research can truly provide reference value for China's scientific and technological progress. As Lukács put it, "When the epistemic ideal of the natural sciences is applied to nature, it merely promotes the progress of science." But when it is applied to society, it becomes the ideological weapon of the bourgeoisie. ”[57]
The study of the above three aspects alone[58] has already constituted a huge task in the study of China's world history. Without the completion of these tasks, the study of China's world history in the coming period cannot be said to have fulfilled its historical mission. It is only on the basis of accomplishing these three major tasks and other possible major tasks that the study of Chinese world history can be bypassed.
IV. Conclusion
Chinese historiography has a long history of development, from the development of ancient civilization to the present, it has always been in the face of the problems of the times, exploring the source of the rise and fall of chaos, clarifying the causes of success and failure, and becoming a wisdom and useful learning. Summarizing the experience and lessons of the development of Chinese history in the 20th century, it can be said that although history is the study of narrative, it is always inseparable from the account of natural, economic, political, and military activities, but history is by no means just the study of narrative. History is the study of the general trend of development that reflects the general trend of social development and grasps the fundamental factors that determine the direction of events and the internal links. Only Marxist historiography can undertake this mission. The most crucial point in adhering to Marxist historiography is that it is necessary to get rid of the genealogy of the emperors and generals, and it is necessary to establish a narrative centered on the class struggle. To this end, Chinese historical research must take into account both domestic and international aspects. From a domestic point of view, Chinese historians need to strengthen the study of ownership history, economic history, social history and contemporary historical figures other than ownership. From an international perspective, Chinese historiography should pay special attention to the search, analysis, and summarization of American history, the history of the international communist movement, and the history of science and technology in the world.
General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out at the conference commemorating the 200th anniversary of Marx's birth that "the reason why Marxism has the influence of transcending countries and eras is because it is rooted in the people and points out the right way for people to rely on the people to promote the progress of history." "The people's position is the basic principle and fine tradition that Chinese Marxist historiography must consistently follow. The world is in the midst of major changes not seen in a century. In such an era, creatively adhering to Marxist historiography has to be the root of what historians think. In such an era, Chinese historians should shoulder a distinct sense of the times and mission, strengthen cultural self-confidence, and write works of Chinese history worthy of the times and the people. With such historical consciousness and under the guidance of the Marxist materialist view of history, the Chinese historical circles will inevitably open up a new situation in historical research.
Notes:
[1] Zhong Weimin and Zhang Mingyu, "The Socialization of Chinese Historiography in the First Half of the 20th Century: An Investigation Centered on Tsinghua Scholars", Journal of Beijing Normal University (Social Science Edition), No. 2, 2016. Wang Xuedian and Sun Yanjie, "A Century of Historiography Between Empirical Pursuit and Hermeneutic Orientation: On the Nature of Historiography", Literature, History and Philosophy, No. 6, 1997.
[2] Wang Guiren, "From the Revolution of Historiography" to the Spread of the "Materialist View of History": An Analysis of the Historical Logic of the Spread of the Materialist View of History in China," Quest, No. 8, 2008.
[3] Zhang Xianwen, "Highlighting the Function of Historiography in Serving the National Development Strategy", Jianghai Academic Journal, No. 5, 2018.
[4] Li Changxian, Commentary on Sima Guang, Nanjing: Nanjing University Press, 1998, pp. 397-400.
[5] Geng Ruiqin, "Notes on the Historiography of <>: Marx's Last Manuscript of Historiography," World History, No. 2, 1992. [6] Russian historiography probably originated in 1803. See Dai Guiju, "Nimi Karamzin – A Famous Russian Aristocratic Historian," Studies in Historical Theory, No. 1, 1997.
[7] Daniel M. W. Knoffez, "American Historians and China," Ideological Front, No. 4, 1994.
[8] Jin Chongji, "Several Fundamental Issues in Modern Chinese History", Studies in the History of the Communist Party of China, No. 3, 2005.
[9] Hou Yunhao, "The Rise of the "Social Transformation" Trend and Chinese History in the 200th Century", Studies in Historical Theory, No. 2, 2002.
[10] Liang Qichao: Narrative of Chinese History, Collected Works of Drinking Ice Room, Anthology No. 6, Beijing: Zhonghua Bookstore, 1989.
[11] Hou Yunhao, "The Rise of the "Social Transformation" Trend and Chinese Historiography in the 200th Century", Studies in Historical Theory, No. 2, 2002.
[12] Liang Qichao: "New Historiography", "Drinking Ice Room Collection", Anthology No. 9, Beijing: Zhonghua Bookstore, 1989, p. 10.
[13] Hou Yunhao, "The Rise of the "Social Transformation" Trend and Chinese History in the 2000s," Studies in Historical Theory, No. 2, 2002.
[14] Xia Zengyou, Ancient Chinese History, Shijiazhuang: Hebei Education Press, 2003, p. 9.
[15] Xu Xusheng, The Legendary Era of Ancient Chinese History (Revised Edition), Science Press, 1960, pp. 22-27.
[16] Ding Zeliang, "New Trends in Chinese Historiography," The Great People (Kunming), April 21, 1943. Reprinted from Li Xiaoqian, "'Red Historiography': Fan Wenlan< A Compendium of General History of China> New Theory", Studies in the History of the Communist Party of China, No. 11, 2018. [17] The Complete Works of Li Dazhao, vol. 3, Hebei People's Publishing House, 1999, p. 58.
[18] The Collected Works of Li Dazhao, People's Publishing House, 1984, p. 678.
[19] Chen Duxiu, "The Basis for The Practice of Rule by the People", New Youth, 1919, Vol. 7, No. 1.
[20] Li Yinqing, "Materialistic View of History and the History of Science", Historical Series, No. 1, 1920.
[21] He Bingsong, "Historical Research Methods," Collected Works of He Bingsong, vol. 2, Beijing: The Commercial Press, 1995, p. 241.
[22] Translated by Yang Yu, Major Trends in Contemporary Historiography, Shanghai Translation Publishing House, 1987, p. 27. Reprinted from Lu Zhongfeng, "Review and Summary: Fifty Years of New Chinese Historiography", Studies in Chinese History, No. 3, 1999.
[23] Reprinted from Jin Canran, A Brief Review and Prospect of Chinese Historiography, edited by Li Xiaoqian, Review of Modern Chinese Historiography, Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, 2016, p. 263.
[24] Wang Jiafan, "A Review of the Centenary of the Compilation of General History of China", Shi Lin, No. 6, 2003.
[25] Gu Jiegang, "The Beginning of a Hundred Histories of China," Declaration, October 21, 1934.
[26] Su Chengjian, "Commentary on the Outline of Chinese History, Volume I", Quarterly Journal of Literature and History Teaching, No. 6, 1942.
[27] Gu Jiegang, Contemporary Chinese Historiography, Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, 2002, p. 81.
[28] Chen Jin, A History of Mao Zedong's Reading, Beijing: Sanlian Bookstore, 2014, p. 100.
[29] Tong Dong, "My History", Biography of Contemporary Chinese Social Sciences, Vol. 4, Bibliographic Literature Publishing House, 1983, p. 84.
[30] Li Xiaoqian, "'Red Historiography': Fan Wenlan< A Compendium of General History of China> New Theory," Journal of the History of the Communist Party of China, No. 11, 2018.
[31] Cai Meibiao: "Wang Weijiang." It is not a matter of governance methods"——An interview with Cai Meibiao," Shi Lin, No. 1, 2013.
[32] Lu Zhongfeng, "Review and Summary: Fifty Years of New Chinese Historiography", Studies in Chinese History, No. 3, 1999.
[33] For example, with regard to the establishment of feudal society, the Outline of Chinese History edited by Zhai Bozan and the Outline of Chinese History edited by Shang Yu adhere to the feudal theory of the Western Zhou Dynasty and the feudal theory of Wei and Jin, respectively. Regarding the long-term continuation of China's feudal society, some people believe that the structure of China's feudal society is "a super-stable system", and the structural characteristics and mechanisms of action of this system make the feudal society produce periodic oscillations, but the structure of China's feudal society remains basically unchanged.
[34] "Six Academic Reports discussed by historians in the capital to commemorate the 110th anniversary of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Revolution: Fan Wenlan's Speech Saying That Historical Research Must Adhere to Strict Historicism," People's Daily, May 31, 1961.
[35] Yang Nianqun, "Some Meditations on Chinese Historiography in the Forty Years of Reform and Opening Up", Tianjin Social Sciences, No. 3, 2018.
[36] Xie Yong, "Back to the Year of Fu Si", 21st Century (Hong Kong), No. 10, 2000.
[37] Chen Feng, "Sinking and Rising: Chinese Historiography during the Economic Transition Period in the 1990s," Dongyue Treatise Series, No. 5, 2020.
[38] Tian Renlong, "Chinese Historiography Faces New Challenges", Trends in Chinese Historical Research, No. 2, 1993.
[39] Chen Feng, "Sinking and Rising: Chinese Historiography in the Economic Transition Period of the 1990s," Dongyue Treatise, No. 5, 2020.
[40] Wang Xuedian, "Chinese History in the Past Fifty Years", Historical Research, No. 1, 2004.
[41] Li Ziwen, "Innovative Issues in the Study of Modern Chinese History", Journal of Historiography, No. 4, 1994.
[42] Zhang Sheng, "Historiography and Its Attitudes Through the "Fragments"", Historical Research, No. 6, 2019.
[43] Yang Nianqun, "Some Meditations on Chinese Historiography in the Forty Years of Reform and Opening Up", Tianjin Social Sciences, No. 3, 2018.
[44] Qu Lindong, "Materialist View of History and the Development of Chinese Historiography", Studies in the History of Historiography, No. 1, 2002.
[45] Dai Angang, "Bumpy Forward: The Evolution of Chinese Historiography in the Second Half of the 20th Century", Fudan Journal (Social Science Edition), No. 2, 2004.
[46] Xi Jinping, "Putting in Work in the Spirit of Waiting for No Time and Only Seizing the Day to Create a New Situation in the Cause of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics in the New Era," https://www.ccps.gov.cn/zt/sjdtbzt/sjdtt/201812/t20181210_115758.shtml,2018-01-05.
[47] Wang Qinrong, "A Realistic Historian: A Treatise on Granovsky," World History, 1995(03): 105-110.
[48] The Collected Works of Mao Zedong, vol. 4, People's Publishing House, 1991, p. 1487.
[49] Hayden White, The Content of Form: Narrative Discourse and Historical Reproduction, translated by Dong Yuhe, Wenjin Publishing House, 2005, p. 8.
[50] Hou Wailu: A Treatise on the History of China's Feudal Society, People's Publishing House, 1979, p. 275.
[51] Han Pan, "Changes from the Juntian System to the Manor Economy," Historical Research, No. 5, 1959.
[52] Yang Bojun, Notes on Mencius, Beijing: Zhonghua Bookstore, 2008, p. 13.
[53] (Qing) Zhang Tingyu et al., History of the Ming Dynasty, Beijing: Zhonghua Bookstore, 1974, p. 1902.
[54] The Complete Works of Lenin, vol. 20, Beijing: People's Publishing House, 1958, p. 401.
[55] Xi Jinping on Governing the Country, vol. 3, Foreign Languages Press, 2020, p. 532.
[56] See, for example, Zhang Xiping, "The Reversal of Sino-Western Relations in the 19th Century and Hegel's View of China," Academic Research, No. 12, 2015.
[57] Lukács, History and Class Consciousness, Beijing: The Commercial Press, 1999, p. 59.
[58] The first two studies are about world relations of production and superstructure, and the third is about world productivity.
[59] For example, the study of world history in China also involves the study of the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Empire, the British Enclosure Movement, the Industrial Revolution, the German "Special Road", the history of Nazism, the construction of socialism in the Soviet Union, the shortcomings of the Soviet system, the collapse of the Soviet Union, and the history of Japan, Africa, and Latin America.
(Author: Wang Jinchao, Professor and Doctoral Supervisor of economic development research center of Wuhan University, senior researcher of Kunlun Ce Research Institute; Tian Yuting, 2020 master's student of the Department of Economics of Wuhan University.) Source: Kunlun Ce Network [original], the author authorized the first release)
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