Summary:
This paper traces the evolution of Western tragedy theory from Chernyshevsky's innovation to the deepening of Marx and Engels. This paper first analyzes how Chernyshevsky introduced social and environmental factors into the analysis of tragedy on the basis of traditional tragedy theory, and then expounds how Marx and Engels used historical materialism to deeply analyze the root causes of tragedy from the perspective of economic basis and class struggle.
I. Introduction
From Aristotle in ancient Greece to Hegel in classical German philosophy, tragic art has always been regarded as a profound reflection of human nature, social contradictions and moral conflicts. However, after the middle of the 19th century, with the drastic changes in social and historical conditions and the rise of social sciences, the understanding of tragedy began to shift from the category of individual psychology and morality to the broad perspective of social history.
Nikolai Chernyshevsky, as an early Russian socialist thinker, opened up a new way to examine tragedy from the perspective of external factors in society. Subsequently, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels further developed this perspective, rooted the theory of tragedy in socio-historical materialism, and profoundly revealed the economic basis and the essence of class struggle behind tragedy.
This study aims to explore the trajectory of this theoretical transformation, from Chernyshevsky's initial exploration to the deepening of Marx and Engels, which is not only a combing of the development history of the theory of tragedy itself, but also a profound reflection on the theory of the relationship between art and society, which has important implications for understanding the social function of artworks, cultural criticism, and contemporary cultural production.
II. The innovation of Chernyshevsky's theory of tragedy
A. Background and limitations of earlier theories of tragedy
In the first half of the 19th century, Western theory of tragedy was deeply influenced by German classical philosophy, especially Hegel's aesthetic system, and tended to interpret tragedy in terms of the conflict of ideas and the self-realization of the absolute spirit. Although this theoretical framework is profound and grand, it often ignores the concreteness of the real society, especially the profound impact of economic foundation and class contradictions on artistic creation. It is in this context that Chernyshevsky's theory of tragedy came into being, aiming to break through the excessive attention of traditional theories to the spiritual level of the individual, and instead explore the social reality of tragedy.
B. Chernyshevsky's Shift of Perspective: A Preliminary Exploration from the Inside to the Outside
Focusing on the influence of social environment on tragedy: Chernyshevsky systematically introduced social environmental factors into the analysis of tragedy for the first time, arguing that the tragic fate of individuals does not exist in isolation, but is closely related to the social environment in which they live. He emphasized the role of social structure, economic conditions and legal systems in regulating individual behaviour, arguing that these external conditions were often the source of tragic conflicts.
The Relevance of Character Tragedy to Social Roles: Chernyshevsky further pointed out that the tragedy of characters in drama should not be limited to character flaws or fateful arrangements, but should see the social role positioning and historical conditions behind them. The actions and choices of the characters, and even their ultimate tragedy, are deeply rooted in the social structure and are a reflection and critique of specific social relations.
C. Implications for the development of later theories
Chernyshevsky's theoretical turning point provided a valuable theoretical starting point for Marx and Engels later. On this basis, Marx and Engels further developed historical materialism, and regarded tragedy as a concentrated manifestation of social and historical contradictions, especially a reflection of class struggle, thus greatly enriching the depth and breadth of tragedy theory. Chernyshevsky's innovative work not only influenced the development of tragedy theory, but also inspired later literary theory and social criticism, emphasizing the close connection between works of art and social reality, and laying an important foundation for realist literary theory and critical theory in the 20th century.
III. Marx and Engels' View of Tragedy: Theoretical Deepening and Expansion
A. Theoretical Foundations of Marx and Engels on Social History
Marx and Engels' theory of social history, i.e., historical materialism, is the cornerstone of their conception of tragedy. This theory asserts that the development of social history is driven by the contradictory movements between the productive forces and the relations of production, between the economic base and the superstructure, rather than by the self-realization of the spirit or idea. Under this framework, tragedy is no longer just a manifestation of the misfortune of individual fate or moral conflict, but a profound reflection of class contradictions and historical changes at a specific social stage.
B. Inheritance and transcendence of theories from Chernyshevsky to Marx and Engels
The perspective that the economic base determines the superstructure: Marx and Engels went beyond Chernyshevsky in that they not only focused on the impact of the social environment on the tragedy, but also focused their analysis on how the economic base determines the superstructure, including art. They believe that tragic works are artistic reflections of social contradictions under specific economic conditions, especially the conflict between modes of production and production relations.
The inevitability of the conflict between class struggle and tragedy: Chernyshevsky touched on the relationship between social roles and tragedy, while Marx and Engels made it clear that tragic conflict is essentially the embodiment of class struggle. The irreconcilability of class contradictions leads to individual tragedy, which is an inevitable phenomenon in the process of social history, which provides a new framework for the interpretation of tragedy.
C. Complement and refine Engels' aesthetic theory
Realist Aesthetics and Historical Materialism: On the basis of Marx's theory, Engels further developed realist aesthetics, emphasizing that art should be faithful to the reality of life and reflect the people's living conditions and the laws of historical development. He integrates historical materialism into aesthetic analysis, and proposes that the truth of a work of art lies in the depth and breadth of its reflection of social history.
Analysis of the Relationship between Artistic Production and Society: Engels made an in-depth analysis of the social relations of artistic production, pointing out that the production, content and form of works of art are all constrained by the mode of production and class relations. This analysis deepens the understanding of the relationship between art and society, and provides a more concrete theoretical tool for the socio-historical analysis of tragic art.
D. Deepen the practical relevance and criticality of tragedy theory
The theory of tragedy deepened by Marx and Engels not only enriches aesthetic and literary theories, but also has profound practical significance and criticism. It prompts people to examine art from the perspective of social history, to recognize the deep social roots of tragedy, and to seek the possibility of changing reality through criticism. This theory encourages the interaction between artistic creation and social change, and art is no longer a pure escape or beautification, but a force to promote social progress, which embodies the realistic care and revolutionary value of tragedy theory.
IV. Exploring the causes of tragedy from the perspective of social history
A. The tragedy of social structures and individual fates
From the socio-historical perspective of Marx and Engels, the tragedy of individual fate is no longer seen as an isolated phenomenon, but as the result of the interaction between social structures and individual living conditions. Social structures, including economic, political, and cultural factors, form the framework for individual actions and choices, and individual tragedies often stem from their position and role in a particular social structure. For example, social injustice and unequal opportunities limit the freedom and possibilities of individuals, making tragedy a manifestation of the oppression of individual destiny by social structures.
Economic relations and the root causes of tragic conflict
Alienation and tragedy under capitalism: Under the capitalist mode of production, the alienation of labor leads to the alienation of workers from products, the production process, the essence of human beings, and even other workers, and this alienation is an important source of tragic emotions. Instead of satisfying and self-fulfilling, workers feel depressed and powerless, which is a tragic experience that is common in capitalist society.
The tragedy of labor and exploitation: exploitative relations are at the heart of the capitalist economy, where workers create far more value than they get, and this unequal exchange leads to both material and spiritual deprivation. The poverty and hardship of workers is not only a tragedy of material life, but also a tragedy of not being able to fully realize the potential of human nature, and embodies the profound contradictions in economic relations.
C. The pervasiveness of class struggle and tragedy
Individual tragedy from a class perspective: In a class society, individual tragedy is often associated with a specific class status, and the individual's experience reflects the situation of the entire class. For example, the poverty, unemployment, illness and early death of members of the proletariat are not only personal misfortunes, but also direct results of class oppression and exploitation, reflecting the universal tragedy of individual fate under the class structure.
Marx and Engels' class analysis: Marx and Engels revealed the universality of tragedy and the deep mechanism of social history through class analysis. They believe that class struggle is the direct driving force of social development, and the root cause of tragic conflict lies in the irreconcilability of the interests of different classes. The frequent conflicts and confrontations caused by class contradictions in capitalist society are not only manifested in social turmoil, but also in the tragic experiences of individuals, and are unavoidable and common phenomena in class society. Through this analysis, Marx and Engels closely linked the theory of tragedy with social revolution, giving tragedy the potential for social criticism and transformation.
V. Comparison and Influence of Western Theories of Tragedy
A. Comparison with traditional theories of tragedy (Aristotle, Hegel)
The theories of tragedy of Chernyshevsky, Marx and Engels stand in stark contrast to Aristotle's Poetics and Hegel's aesthetic system. Aristotle emphasized the role of character and fate in tragedy, believing that tragedy triggers pity and fear to achieve the purpose of purifying the soul. Hegel, on the other hand, saw tragedy as a self-conflict and reconciliation of the Absolute Idea. In contrast, the theoretical shift from Chernyshevsky to Marx and Engels shifts tragedy from the conflict of individual personalities and ideas to social reality and class contradictions, revealing the broader socio-historical roots of tragedy.
B. Differences and connections between the theories of Chernyshevsky and Marx and Engels
Shift from the perspective of the individual to the society: Chernyshevsky's innovation lies in the initial extension of the analysis of tragedy from the individual heart to the social environment, and Marx and Engels further deepened this transformation, through the framework of historical materialism, the tragedy as a direct expression of social contradictions, especially the product of class struggle, thus completing the fundamental transformation from the perspective of the individual to the society.
Expansion of theoretical depth and breadth: Chernyshevsky's theory opened up the discussion of social factors, but it did not completely depart from the individualist framework; Marx and Engels not only analyzed the root cause of tragedy in depth through the theory of economic foundation and superstructure, but also expanded the application of tragedy theory in breadth, making it closely linked to the entire social and historical process.
C. Profound influence on later theories and practices
The guiding significance of literary and artistic creation: This theoretical school has had a significant impact on the literary and artistic creation of later generations, encouraging artists to pay attention to social reality, revealing social contradictions, reflecting the suffering of the working class and the oppressed, promoting the development of literary and artistic schools such as realism and socialist realism, and making literary and artistic works a tool for social criticism and consciousness awakening.
Development of social theory: In the field of social theory, the tragic theories of Chernyshevsky, Marx, and Engels inspired in-depth discussions on the relationship between cultural production and society, and promoted the development of cultural sociology, Marxist aesthetics, and critical theory. Their theories have become an important lens for understanding social inequality, cultural commodification, and ideological struggle, and have had a profound impact on subsequent social science research and cultural critical practice. In addition, this theory of tragedy from the perspective of social history has also provided theoretical resources for modern critical theorists, such as the Frankfurt School, and promoted a new round of criticism and reflection on individual alienation and cultural tragedy in modern industrial society.
VI. Conclusion
This study reviews Chernyshevsky's innovation of tragedy theory and its profound influence on the theories of Marx and Engels, and focuses on the transformation from individualism to social history, the relationship between economic base and superstructure, the inevitability of class struggle, and Engels' supplement and refinement of aesthetic theory. We find that this theoretical evolution not only enriches the connotation of tragedy theory and makes it closely integrated with the social and historical process, but also provides a new guiding principle for artistic creation, emphasizing the social responsibility and critical function of literary and artistic works. More importantly, this theoretical approach promotes the development of social theory, provides an aesthetic perspective for understanding social structure, economic relations and class contradictions, and deepens human understanding of its own history and reality.
Author: Lu Xilin
Bibliography:
Selected Works of Chernyshevsky
Selected Works of Marx and Engels
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