Feng Youlan: Mozi, Confucius's first opponent| A Brief History of Chinese Philosophy

After Confucius, the next major philosopher was Mozi. His surname is Mo Ming Zhai. The "Chronicle of History" does not say which country he was from, and there is very little about his life, in fact, it is equivalent to not saying. Therefore, there have always been differences of opinion as to which country Mozi is. Some scholars say he was a native of song (present-day Luxi, eastern Henan), while others say he was a Lu. The year of his birth and death is also uncertain, but between 479 and 381 BC. The main material for the study of Mozi's thought is the book "Mozi", a total of fifty-three articles, which is a collection of works by Mozi himself and his descendants.

The school founded by Mozi is called mojia. In ancient times, Mozi and Confucius enjoyed the same fame, and the influence of ink science was no less than that of Confucius. It's interesting to compare these two people. Confucius had a sympathetic understanding of the traditional systems and ritual literature of the Western Zhou Dynasty, and sought to argue that they were reasonable and justified in ethical terms; Mozi, on the contrary, regarded them as improper and inappropriate, and strove to replace them with something simpler and, in his opinion, something useful. In short, Confucius was the apologist of ancient culture, defending it as reasonable and legitimate; Mozi was its critic. Confucius was a gentle gentleman, and Mozi was a missionary in battle. The purpose of his missionary work was to oppose the traditional system and convention, confucius and Confucian doctrine together.

The social background of the Mo family

Mozi's criticism of Confucianism

Love

Tenchi and Ming Ghost

A paradoxical contradiction

The origin of the state

▇ The social background of the Mo family

In the Zhou Dynasty, tianzi, princes, and feudal lords all had their military experts. The backbone of the army at that time consisted of hereditary samurai. With the disintegration of the feudal system in the late Zhou Dynasty, these samurai experts lost their titles and scattered everywhere, serving as those who hired them and making a living. Such people are called "Rangers", and the Chronicle of History says that they "will believe their words, and their deeds will bear fruit, and they will be sincere in their promises, and they will not love their bodies, and they will go to the doom of the soldiers" (The Chronicles of the Rangers). These are their work ethics. Most of the ink science is the exertion of this morality.

In Chinese history, both Confucianism and Chivalry originated from experts who were attached to the "family" of the nobility, and they were themselves members of the upper class. Later, Confucians were still mostly from the upper or middle classes; the Xia were not, more from the lower classes. In ancient times, social activities such as liturgy were completely limited to the nobility; therefore, from the perspective of the commoners, liturgical music and the like were luxury goods and had no practical value. It is from this point of view that Mozi and the Mo family criticize the traditional system and its apologists, Confucius and Confucianism. This critique, coupled with the exertion and defense of the professional ethics of their own class, constitutes the core of Mojia philosophy.

Mozi and his disciples were born into chivalry, and this assertion is well documented. From the Mozi and other contemporaries, we know that the Mo people formed a group capable of conducting military operations, and the discipline was extremely strict. The leader of this group is called "Juzi" and has the authority to decide life and death for all members. Mozi was the first juzi of this group, and he led his disciples to actually carry out military operations at least once, that is, when the Song State was threatened by aggression by the neighboring State of Chu, they prepared a military defense for the Song State.

This plot is interesting and can be found in the "Gong Lose" section of "Mozi". According to this article, there was a famous mechanical inventor Gong Lu, who was employed by the Chu state at that time, resulting in a new type of siege equipment. The State of Chu was preparing to attack the State of Song with this new instrument. When Mozi heard about this, he went to the Chu kingdom to dissuade the king of Chu. There, he and Gong Yu practiced their offensive and defensive apparatus in front of the King of Chu. Mozi first untied his belt, used it to form a city, and took a small stick as a weapon. Then he used nine different miniature offensive devices, and nine times he was repelled by Mozi. In the end, gong lost all his offensive equipment, but Mozi's defensive means were far from being exhausted. So he said, "I know how to beat you, but I don't want to say it." Mozi replied, "I know your way, but I don't want to say it either." ”

The King of Chu asked Mozi what this meant, and Mozi continued, "Gong Lost is trying to kill me. But my disciple, Bird Slippery and three hundred others, already holding my defensive equipment, were waiting for the Chu invaders in the city of the Song Kingdom, and even if you killed me, you wouldn't be able to exterminate them. The King of Chu heard these words and shouted, "Okay, good! I said don't attack Song. ”

If true, this story sets a good example for the settlement of disputes between the two countries in the world today. War does not have to be fought on the battlefield. As long as the scientists and engineers of the two countries take out the offensive and defensive weapons in their experiments and compete, the war will be decided without a fight!

Whether this story is true or not, it can also reflect the nature of the inker group, which is also mentioned in other books. For example, in the "Huainanzi Tai Training", it is said: "One hundred and eighty people who serve in Mozi can make a fire blade and die without heeling." "Almost nine of the books on Mozi itself are about defensive tactics and defensive equipment. All this shows that the people who originally formed the Mo family were a group of samurai.

However, Mozi and his disciples are different from ordinary Rangers in two ways. First, as long as the ordinary Rangers are rewarded or favored by the feudal lords, they will fight any battle; Mozi and his disciples are not, they are strongly opposed to wars of aggression, so they are only willing to participate in wars that are strictly limited to self-defense. Second, the average Ranger is limited to the rules of professional ethics and has nothing to play; but Mozi elaborates on this professional ethic, arguing that it is reasonable and justified. In this way, although Mozi's social background is a hero, he also becomes the founder of a new school.

▇ Mozi's criticism of Confucianism

Mozi believes that "the way of Confucianism is enough to destroy the world" :(1) Confucians do not believe in the existence of heavenly ghosts, and "heavenly ghosts are not pleased." (2) Confucians insisted on thick burials, and after the death of their parents, they practiced three years of mourning, thus wasting the wealth and energy of the people. (iii) The Confucian emphasis on music has the same consequences. (iv) Confucians believe in predetermined destiny, causing people to be lazy and entrust themselves to fate (Mozi Gonglu). The "Non-Confucian" section of "Mozi" also says: "Tired life can not do their best to learn, can not perform their rituals in those years, accumulate wealth can not support their happiness." Flourishing with evil arts, with the camp of the world, Sheng as vocal music, with obscenity to meet the people: its way can not be expected to live, its learning can not lead the public. ”

These criticisms show that the Social Backgrounds of Confucianism and Ink are different. Before Confucius, some well-educated and thoughtful people had long since given up their belief in the Heavenly Emperor and the Ghost God. People in the lower classes usually have a slower suspicion of the ghosts. Mozi held the view of the lower class. The first point of his opposition to Confucianism is this. The second and third points are also put forward on this basis. As for the fourth point, it is irrelevant, because although Confucianism often speaks of "fate", it does not refer to the predetermined fate that Mozi attacks. As already pointed out in the previous chapter, in the Confucian view, fate refers to things beyond the control of man. But if he tried his best, there was always something within his control. Therefore, only after having done all that he is able to do, can man think that what is still coming is inevitable, and can only accept it calmly and helplessly. This is what Confucians mean by "knowing one's destiny."

▇ Love at the same time

Mozi did not criticize the Confucian concept of benevolence and righteousness; in the book "Mozi", he often talked about benevolence and righteousness, and often talked about benevolence and righteousness. However, what he refers to in these terms is still somewhat different from what Confucianism refers to. According to Mozi's meaning, benevolence and righteousness refer to both love, and benevolent and righteous people are those who practice this kind of simultaneous love. Simultaneous love is a central concept of Mozi's philosophy. Mozi is out of the Ranger, and love is an extension of the logic of the Ranger's professional ethics. This kind of morality is that within their community," "there are blessings and misfortunes" (this is what later chivalrous people often say). Based on this concept of the group, Mozi tried to expand it by propagating the doctrine of love, that is, everyone under the heavens should love everyone else equally and indiscriminately.

There are three articles in "Mozi" dedicated to love. In it, Mozi first distinguishes between what he calls "concurrent" and "other". Those who insist on loving at the same time are called "concurrent soldiers", and those who insist on loving people with differences are called "other soldiers". "The words of the beholder say: How can I be my friend's body, and my friend's relative if it is my relative", he did very little for his friend. He "will be his friend's body, and his friend's relative as his relative", and he will do everything he can for his friend. After making such a distinction, Mozi asked: Which one is right? (For an introduction, see "Mozi Kane-ichi")

Mozi then uses his "three tables" to judge the right and wrong of both and other (and all speech). The so-called "three tables" are "those who have a foundation, those who have a source, and those who are useful." In its original nature, the heavenly ghost of the will, the matter of the Holy King" (Mozi Non-Fate). "In what sense?" The truth of the eyes and ears of the people was observed. What is it used for? It is considered to be a criminal government, and the interests of the people of the country are viewed. Among the "three tables", the last "one table" is the most important. "The interests of the people of China" is the criterion for Mozi to judge all values.

This criterion is the main criterion that Mozi uses to prove that love is the most desirable. In "Under the Love of Both", he argues: "He who does the things of benevolence must seek to prosper the interests of the world and remove the harms of the world." But at this time, what is the greater harm in the world? A: The great powers attack small countries, and the chaos of everyone and the small families; the robbery of the strong, the tyranny of the multitudes, the deception of foolishness, and the pride of the noble: the harm of this world. ...... If the original is born of the harm of the people, this Hu is self-generated? This self-love, self-love, life and? That is, it must be known: non-so-so- Must know: from the life of the wicked and the thief. The name of the world's wicked and the thief, both? Don't do it with? That is, it must be known: don't also. However, those who are friends with each other, the greatest harms in the world are born and those who are born in the world. Yes and no.

"The inhuman will be easily changed." ...... It is the old son Mozi Yue: at the same time, it is easy to say goodbye. But why can it be easy to say goodbye? A: If it is the kingdom of man, if it is its kingdom, who alone raises his kingdom to attack the kingdom of man? He who does the other is his own. If it is the capital of man, if it is its capital, who alone will be the capital of the people? For the sake of the other. If it is his home, if it is his home, who is the husband who alone holds his home as the house of the disorder? For the sake of the other.

"However, even if the kingdoms do not attack each other, and the people do not mess with each other, the harm of this world is different from each other. The benefits of the world and? That is, it must be known: the benefit of the world. Gu tastes the original self-generated place of benefit. This Hu is self-generated? This is from the life of the wicked and the thief? That is, it must be known: non-so-so- It must be known: from the love of the people, the benefit of life. Those who are named after the world's lovers and benefit others, don't be with? Combined with? That is, it must be known: kanya. However, those who are friends with each other, those who are fruitful and the great profits of the world, and those who are fruitful in the world. It is the old son Mozi Yue: concurrently is also. ”

Mozi uses this utilitarian debate to prove that love is absolutely correct. The task of a benevolent person is to prosper the world and eliminate harm, and he should take both love as his own standard of action and that of all the people in the world, which is called "merging" as "right." "To be positive is to be wise and clear-sighted, to be in harmony with the audio-visual; to be strong in the humerus, to be moving." And there is a teaching of the Tao, that those who are old and have no wife will have some services to live their lives; those who have no parents in the young and weak orphans will be relied upon to grow up. Now there is no need to be right at the same time, that is, if it is profitable. This is also the ideal world of Mozi, which can only be created by practicing love.

▇ Tenchi and Ming Ghost

But there is also a fundamental question: how to persuade people to love at the same time? You can tell people what you have said above, saying that practicing both love is the only way to benefit the world, and that benevolent people are those who practice both love. But people will also ask: Why should my personal actions benefit the world? Why do I have to be a human being? You can further argue that if it is good for the whole world, it is good for everyone in the world. Or in mozi's words: "He who loves others will love him; he who benefits others will benefit from him; he who does evil will be evil; he who harms others will harm them." In this way, loving others is a kind of personal insurance or investment, and it will be repaid. But the vast majority of people are close-eyed and don't see the value of such long-term investments. There are also examples of such investments that simply do not go back.

In order to induce people to practice love, Mozi introduced many religious and political sanctions in addition to the above principles. Therefore, "Mozi" has several articles about "Tianzhi" and "Ming Ghost". It says that the Emperor of Heaven exists, the Emperor of Heaven loves others, and the will of the Emperor of Heaven is that all people should love each other. The Emperor often monitored the actions of men, especially the rulers. He punishes those who break The Will with misfortune and rewards those who obey It with blessings. In addition to the Heavenly Emperor, there are many smaller ghosts and gods, and like the Heavenly Emperor, they reward those who practice both love and punish those who are "different" to each other.

There is a story of Mozi related to this, which is very interesting. The story says: "Zi Mozi has a disease, and he falls his nose and then asks: Mr. Is a ghost and a god, and can be blessed, rewarded for the good, and punished for the bad." Mr. Jin, the saint, why is there a disease? Is there anything bad about Mr. Yi's words? Ghosts and gods do not know? Zi Mozi: Although I am sick, why are the ghosts and gods unknown? Man's income is in many ways for the sick: there is cold and heat, and there is suffering. If a hundred doors are closed, then why can't thieves enter? If we use the terminology of modern logic, Mozi can say that the punishment of ghosts and gods is a sufficient cause of a person's illness, not a necessary cause.

▇ A paradoxical contradiction

Now is the right time to point out that both the Mo family and the Confucians seem to be contradictory in their attitude toward the existence of ghosts and gods and in the worship of ghosts and gods. The Mo family believed in the existence of ghosts and gods, but it seemed contradictory to oppose funerals and sacrifices at the same time. Confucianism emphasizes funerals and sacrifices, but does not believe in the existence of ghosts and gods, which also seems to be contradictory. When the Mo family talked about Confucianism, he himself pointed out this contradiction very clearly. Mencius was a Confucian man. "Mencius said 'no ghost god', and also said 'Mencius must learn to sacrifice'. Zi Mozi said: "To learn the ritual without ghosts is to learn the ritual of the guest without a guest, and it is to learn the ritual of the guest without a fish, and to learn the ritual of the fish without a fish." (Mozi Gonglu)

Confucianism and the Mo family, which seem to be contradictions, are not real contradictions. According to Confucianism, the reason for performing sacrifices is no longer because of the belief that ghosts and gods really exist, of course, believing in the existence of ghosts and gods is undoubtedly the original reason for sacrifices. The ritual is only the feeling of filial piety to the ancestors, so the meaning of the ceremony is poetic, not religious. This doctrine was later elaborated by Xunzi and his school, which will be discussed in chapter thirteen of this book. So there is no real contradiction at all.

There is also no actual contradiction in the Mo family's view. Because Mozi wanted to prove the existence of ghosts and gods, he was originally intended to set up religious sanctions for his doctrine of love, and did not have any real interest in supernatural entities. Therefore, he blamed the great chaos in the world on "doubting the difference between the existence and non-existence of ghosts and gods, and not knowing that ghosts and gods can reward the virtuous and punish the tyranny", and then asked: "If the people of the world are to be punished with the belief in the power of the ghosts and gods to reward the virtuous and punish the tyranny, then will the world be chaotic?" Therefore, his "Heavenly Zhi" and "Ming Ghosts" are just to induce people to believe that if you practice both love, you will be rewarded, and if you do not practice both love, you will be punished. It may be useful to have such a belief in the human heart, so Mozi needs it. "Thrifty use" and "thrifty burial" are also useful, so Mozi also needs it. From Mozi's extreme utilitarian point of view, the need for these two things is not contradictory, because both are useful.

▇ Origin of the country

If people want to practice love, in addition to religious sanctions, they also need political sanctions. "Mozi" has three articles, "ShangTong", which expounds Mozi's theory of national origin. According to this doctrine, there are two sources of authority for the monarch: the will of the people and the will of the emperor. It goes further, saying that the main task of the monarch is to monitor the actions of the people, to reward those who practice both love and to punish those who do not. In order to do this effectively, his authority must be absolute. At this point, we may ask: Why do people voluntarily choose to have such an absolute authority to rule over them?

Mozi's answer was that people accepted such authority not because they chose it, but because they had no choice. According to him, before the establishment of an organized state, people lived in the "state of nature," as Thomas Hobbes called it. At this time, "Gaiqi said that the people of the world are different. One is one righteous, two are righteous, ten are ten righteous, and the so-called righteous are many, and so are the so-called righteous. It is the righteousness of man and the righteousness of man, so that fellowship is not also." "The chaos of the world is like a beast." Fu Ming knew that the reason why the world was chaotic was born without a political leader. He who chooses the wise men of the world is the Son of Heaven. (Mozi Shang Ibid.) In this way, the monarch was originally established by the will of the people to save them from anarchy.

In another passage, Mozi also said: "The ancient god god and god who built the capital of the country and established the right and long, not the high lord, the thick qilu, the rich and the noble, and the wrong, will think that all the people will prosper, eliminate harm, rich and poor, widows, safety, and chaos." According to this statement, the state and the monarch were established through the will of the Heavenly Emperor.

No matter how the monarch gains power, as long as he has power in his hands, he will do it. According to Mozi, the Son of Heaven will "rule over the people of the world, saying: Hear the good and not the good, and tell it to the top; what is above is what is, it will be all; what is above will not be, it will be not" (Mozi Shang Ibid.). This leads to Mozi's famous saying: "The same as the upper and not the lower." ("Mozi Shang Ibid.") that is, always agree to the top, do not follow the bottom.

As Mozi argues, the state must be totalitarian, and the authority of the monarch must be absolute. This is the inevitable conclusion of his doctrine of the origin of the state. Because the establishment of the state has its clear purpose, that is, to end the chaos, the existence of chaos is due to the "different meanings of the people under the heavens." Therefore, the fundamental function of the state is "the righteousness of the same country" (see Mozi Shang Ibid.). Within a country, there can only be one righteousness, and this righteousness must be a righteousness determined by the state itself. No other righteousness can be tolerated, for if there were other righteousness, people would soon return to the "state of nature" and have nothing but chaos. In this political theory, we can also see that Mozi developed a chivalrous work ethic, which places great emphasis on obedience and discipline within the group. It undoubtedly reflects the chaotic political situation of the Mozi era, making many people yearn for a centralized regime, even if it is an authoritarian dictatorship.

In this way, there can only be one righteousness. Righteousness, Mozi believes that it is "intersecting and merging", and unrighteousness is "intersecting and separating". This is the only non-standard. By resorting to this political sanction, combined with his religious sanctions, Mozi hopes that he will be able to make all the people in the world practice his way of love.

Mozi's doctrine is like this. All the literature at the same time as Mozi unanimously tells us that Mozi's own words and deeds are the real examples of his own doctrine.

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