Since the Bronze Age, the ancient exchanges between Eastern and Western civilizations have always shone with the brilliance of glass, and a large number of glass remains from various periods have been found in Eurasia and North Africa, from which we can glimpse the dissemination, evolution, exchange and integration of ancient multi-civilization science and technology, material technology, multilateral trade, ideological culture, artistic aesthetics and other elements. Compared with the glorious achievements of ancient Chinese ceramics, bronze, dyeing and weaving, lacquerware and other arts, local glass art seems to be slightly inferior. However, carefully considering its development history, glass art has a unique style and characteristics in its own style and characteristics.
【Late Spring and Autumn】Eye pattern glass bead string The tomb of Zhao Qing in Jinsheng Village, Taiyuan City, Shanxi Province, was excavated from the collection of The Shanxi Museum
In 2022, on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the normalization of diplomatic relations between China and Japan, the Art Museum of Tsinghua University, based on the 325 sets of ancient glassware of the world collected by the Ikuo Silk Road Art Museum in Hirayama, Japan, and supported by the collections of many Chinese cultural institutions, held a special exhibition on January 25 entitled "Colorful: Glass Art in the Exchange of Ancient Eastern and Western Civilizations", which aims to show the important role played by glass in the history of world civilization, the history of scientific and technological development, the history of art and the history of trade exchanges with time.
[Early Roman Empire] gold glass bottle
The history of western glass manufacturing predates China, because its material is similar to ceramic glaze, so the origin and origin of Western glass have always been different. What is certain, however, is that around 1500 BC, glassware in Egypt and Mesopotamia had matured considerably, and glassmaking in the Roman Empire flourished, and catalyzed the maturity and popularity of transparent glass. After the collapse of the Roman Empire, the glass industry in Sassanid Persia and the Islamic world of West Asia flourished, and most of the glass imported from the West in ancient China was produced in these regions, which had a profound technical and even artistic impact on the Chinese glass industry.
【Sengoku】Gold, glass beads, agate and other group decorations【Partial】
The large tomb of Majiayuan M18 in Zhangjiachuan, Tianshui City, Gansu Province, was excavated from the Gansu Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology
The word "glass" is a foreign language, which officially appeared in the Southern and Northern Dynasties period, and was often written as "Bo Li" and "Po Li", which was widely used after the Tang and Song Dynasties. Since the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the words "glass" and "glass" have appeared at the same time, and later the name "material vessel" has appeared. Later generations usually think that the transparent crystal-like glass, the translucent glaze-like glaze is the material vessel, and the opaque jade-like glass. China's products have long belonged to lead barium glass, which is different from Western soda-lime glass. Around the beginning of the Han Dynasty, the composition of glass made in China tended to be diversified, such as Zhan Han lead barium glass, Sui and Tang lead glass, Song and Yuan potassium and calcium glass and so on. Based on the different understanding of the material, since the 1930s, archaeologists have excavated a large number of synthetic translucent beads and tubes in the Western Zhou Tombs in Zhouyuan and Luoyang, the Baoji Yuguo Tombs, the Qufu Luguo Tombs, the Chu Tombs of Huaichuan, the Wu Royal Chamber Cellars in Suzhou, and the Quwo Jinhou Cemetery. Experts either believe they are the earliest glass in China, or eclectically call them "primitive glass," while researchers insist that they are polycrystalline quartz beads containing a small amount of glass phase. At present, researchers have largely formed a consensus that in the Warring States or earlier, China's glassmaking has become popular.
【Islamic period】 Iranian milled flower ornament cup
During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the glassware surface was bright and moist, the color was mainly blue, green and nirvana, and the characteristics of imitating jade in shape and color were very significant. In addition to beads and tubes, dragonfly eye beads, glass pieces, seals, bi, rings, sword ornaments, nine trick ornaments and other instruments also appeared. Multi-colored circle dots are the most common ornaments, and imitation jade objects are mostly decorated with grain or pu patterns. In addition, cloud patterns, persimmon patterns, and animal face patterns are also popular. The manufacturing process includes casting, winding, inlaying and other technologies, and the lost wax casting method originally used for bronze manufacturing began to be used in glass production, which made the glass shape more and more delicate and delicate.
【Northern Wei】Glass bottle Collection of Datong City Museum
During the Two Han Dynasties, Chinese glass craftsmanship evolved into an independent development trend, and its production was mainly distributed in the vast Central Plains region, as well as the Hexi Corridor area and the Lingnan region. Although the glass model is still mainly based on imitating jade, many new types of utensils have been developed, such as ear rings, hooks, seals, as well as ear cups, flat bowls, bowls, plates, pots, etc. Since then, glass furnishings and daily utensils have gradually become the mainstream of glass modeling, which has led to the great development of China's glass manufacturing industry.
【Sui Dynasty】Glass bottle Excavated from the tomb of Li Jingxun in Xi'an Collection of the National Museum of China
After years of war, the economically withered Wei and Jin Dynasties and the Southern and Northern Dynasties were difficult to make local glassware, but in the tombs of the ruling class, exquisite glassware was repeatedly found, they mostly came from the west, most of the roman glass unearthed in the north, and the Sassanid works in the south. With the deepening of The exchange between China and the West, the Western Formula and the Western Style Glass have gradually been fired in the local area, and the utensils are light and transparent, decorated with string patterns or stacked stripes, and the colors are mainly sky blue, light green, yellow-green, and rich in exoticism. More importantly, the Western glass making method has led to the progress of local technology, and the local glass production has absorbed the Western blowing method, such as the bottles and bowls unearthed in the Northern Wei Taji in Dingzhou.
【Liao Dynasty】 Carved glass long-necked bottle Inner Mongolia Tongliao City Naiman Banner Princess Chen Guo Tomb excavated Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region Cultural Relics and Archaeology Research Institute collection
The Sui Dynasty was short-lived, but it held a prominent position in the history of glass. In the fourth year of Daye (608), 24 pieces of glassware were excavated from the tomb of Li Jingxun in Xi'an, and the green flat bottles were also listed among the cultural relics that China prohibited from going abroad (border) to exhibit. As for its practice, not only for blowing, but also for the mouth rim and hoist foot, the Western technique of attaching glass strips is also adopted. On the basis of inheriting the Sui Dynasty, the glass of the Tang Dynasty has been greatly improved in both type and quantity, and the bright and colorful glass products are both rich in traditional Chinese characteristics and full of strong Persian style. The new instrument types include tea bowls, tea saucers, hollow glass beads and Buddha statues, etc., and the colors are more abundant than the previous generation, in addition to blue, green, light green, yellow-green, and new colors such as milky white, yellow, brown, brown, etc., which greatly enrich the color creation space of glass art. In terms of decorative techniques, it is also more diversified, and a more exquisite new process has evolved from the previous simple decorative means such as grinding and casting, engraving, and pasting. The most exquisite works of this period are from the underground palace of Famen Temple, most of them are Islamic glass, and their degree of elaboration is rarely preserved even in the West, when they were all treasures of the royal Buddha, which shows the status of Western high-grade glass in the hearts of the Chinese people.
Mycenaean 14th-13th centuries BC Beaded necklaces were cast
In the Song Dynasty, including the Liao and Jin dynasties in the same period, the glass texture was mainly high-lead glass and potassium-lead glass. Glassware in this period mainly won by shape, glass bottles, cups, beads and other types of utensils are still popular, and most of the works are small and exquisite, rich in color. In addition, new types such as glass jewelry and gourd-type bottles have emerged. The decoration method is relatively simple, the production process is mostly moldless blowing, although the material is impure, the rust is serious, but the technology is sophisticated, the wall is meticulous, the tire is as thin as paper, and the colors are milky white, light blue, yellow green and so on. The high-end Islamic glassware excavated in Liaodi also reflects the Khitan nobles' enthusiasm for Islamic glass, and the frequent exchanges between China and the West during this period.
In the Yuan Dynasty, glassware was mainly based on women's headdresses, and new types such as lotus cups, lotus trays, and glass guises also appeared. In the process, the filigree method is used to manufacture glass beads, which are shaped like flowing water and have a unique charm. Although the output of glass in the Yuan Dynasty was not large, the official paid more attention to the manufacture of glass, and a special government-run glass workshop "Ouyu Bureau" was set up, and this system was continued until the Ming Dynasty. At this time, the Western Expedition of the Mongol Army led to the withering of the Islamic glass industry, and although the Venetian glass in the westerner region had gradually prospered, venice was too far away for China at this time, and the fragile glass transportation was more difficult.
Hellenistic period 3rd-1st century BC Amphora in the Eastern Mediterranean region
Ming Dynasty glass manufacturing is also very much valued by the official, mainly based on Shandong Boshan Yanshen Town as a base for production, glass beads, hairpins, cups, plates, bowls and other utensils and belt plates began to be used in the official and folk fashion. The Qing Dynasty was the golden age of the development of traditional Chinese glass art, and glassware not only had many qualities and high craftsmanship, but also had brilliant colors and new shapes. Especially during the Kangqian period of the Qing Dynasty, the development of ancient Chinese glass technology reached its peak, which was highlighted by the creation of nesting technology and superb monochrome glass manufacturing technology. After Qianlong, the style of the glass factory gradually lost, the scale of production was far less than that of the Qianlong era, and the reduction of output was also accompanied by the depression of art, and until the Qing Dynasty, the production of glass factory products only rebounded slightly in the Tongguang and Liang dynasties.
Islamic period 7th-8th century AD Milled pattern bowls iran
The 3,000-year-old historical development process of traditional Chinese glass art has fluctuated and fluctuated, and has always appeared in the form of decoration, utensils or some kind of use function. In traditional Chinese culture, glass art has always occupied only a non-mainstream position. The reason for this should be closely related to the fact that it has not really gone deep into the people. From the perspective of material analysis, Chinese glass before the Southern and Northern Dynasties was mainly lead barium glass, which was easily broken, not resistant to high temperatures, and inconvenient for daily use. After the Southern and Northern Dynasties, China introduced Western soda-lime glass, and evolved from lead barium glass to high lead and alkali glass, but the price is expensive, mostly a luxury product enjoyed by the rich and noble, and it is difficult to enter the homes of ordinary people. From the perspective of process analysis, early glass is far more difficult than ceramics in technical treatment, and the application value is not as good as ceramics, which hinders its promotion and application. Therefore, the development of traditional Chinese glass is far less than that of other arts and crafts categories such as ceramics and jade. However, throughout its long history of development, with the development of materials and the progress of technology, the shape, color, and decoration are constantly changing, and the colors of a single work are becoming more and more diverse, the shapes are becoming more and more abundant, and the artistic standards are constantly improving. ■