According to historical records such as the Book of Tang, a custom of face decoration called "ochre noodles" was popular during the Tibetan Tubo period, but its specific style has not been recorded. In recent years, the publication of Tubo burial materials in Dulan and Delingha, Qinghai, has enabled us to have the most intuitive understanding and understanding of this facial decoration custom for the first time through archaeological materials, and the wooden board paintings unearthed in the tomb have dozens of "ochre" figures, reproducing the specific style of this facial decoration custom in the Tufan period. This paper intends to use the archaeological materials of the two foundation burials as the physical basis, combined with relevant literature, and try to make a little research and analysis on the form, characteristics, source flow and other issues of the "ochre" in the Tubo period.
I. Analysis of the word "ochre" in historical documents
In fact, in the Chinese and Tibetan literature related to the history of Tibet, there is the word "ochre", but there are two different directions regarding the meaning of the word in the historical records and the understanding and use of the word by researchers. One view is that the term "ochre noodles" should refer to the characteristics of the ancient Tibetan race, that is, the "red noodles" of the so-called "meat-eating red-faced people" in Tibet in ancient Times. "For example, the Five Testaments records that 'after that, ruled by gods and rock witches, Tibet was then called the Domain of Gods and Demons (originally attached to the Tibetan text, the same author's note below), and 'carnivorous red-faced people' appeared (see page 18 of the King's Testament)." In the meantime, the term 'carnivorous red-faced' was regarded as a synonym for Tibetans in later Tibetan texts, and then used the term 'Red Face Domain' or 'Red Face Domain' to refer to Tibet... In the Book of Tang, the so-called Tubo people like to 'depict the face', which is immediately referred to in Tibetan as (red face or jingmian), the so-called 'red face domain' or 'red face country' cover originates from this. [1] For example, in Tubo, there are three major places of ground... Originally known as the land of snow and spit. For a period of time in the middle, it was ruled by the gods and demons, known as the Area of The Essence, and later known as the Kingdom of Siddhartha [2]... The origin of the "red noodles", the history of Bon, "Fayuan", is explained as caused by the initial "direct ingestion of human beings, eating human and animal flesh and blood turned red" [3]. Obviously, the literal meaning of the word "ochre" that appears here should refer to racial characteristics such as skin color, so the researchers' understanding and use of it are equivalent to words such as "red face" and "red face", which is a description or reference to the ethnic characteristics of the ancient Tibetan ancestors, and also believes that the "ochre" referred to in the Book of Tang is also this meaning. In addition, there are similar uses in the "Ba Xie", "The Five Testaments of the King Katang", "The Record of the Destruction of shakyamuni Rulai's image", and "The Continuation of the Mother of the Venerable Buddha", which are not listed. In the Chinese literature, there is a close friend of the "Wilderness Dust Dream" that says "... What you see along the way is the Tibetan people of the wax-faced Zuo Gui", which is the continuation of the above meanings in modern times[4].
Another understanding and use of the term "ochre" refers to "applying ochre", that is, refers to the form of makeup that applies red color to the face. Regarding this reference, the most representative one should cite a passage in the Old Book of Tang and the Tale of Tubo: "In the fifteenth year of Zhenguan, the emperor took the wife of Princess Wencheng ... The princess hated her face and praised the power of the country and dismissed it. The "ochre noodles" that appear here refers to the red makeup style on the face, and the correlation between the forewords can be read, which was a common custom in Tibet at that time, so it was said that "the power of the country was abolished". Scholars have always said that the Tubo people have the custom of "ochre noodles", most of which are based on this, so there is no ambiguity in the understanding and use of the term "ochre noodles" here.
Carefully examining the meaning and usage of the term "ochre" in Tibetan and Chinese literature, there are obvious differences, and those who call "ochre" and other similar words as facial makeup are from Chinese literature; while those who appear in Tibetan for "ochre" or similar words refer to the ethnic characteristics of "red-faced" in Tibet, and no reference to "ochre" is a facial makeup style.
Second, the example of the "ochre noodles" of Tibet as seen in the tomb materials
Physical examples of "ochre noodles" in Tibet can be found in two burial materials published in recent years. Two tombs were found in Qinghai Province, one excavated in 1999 at Tomb Tubo No. 3 in Dulan[5] and two Tubo tombs in Guolimu, Delingha, which was cleaned up in 2002 (6). Wood panel paintings depicting "ochre" figures have been unearthed in both burials, as follows:
Dulan Tubo No. 3 Tomb is located on the south bank of the hot water ditch in the Blood Wei Grassland of Hot Water Township, Dulan County, located at an altitude of more than 3,400 meters, jointly excavated and cleaned by the Institute of Archaeology and Archaeology of Peking University and the Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology of Qinghai Province in 1999, numbered 99DRNM3, is an oval-shaped stone multi-chamber tomb with a sealed soil, whose era is about the middle of the 8th century AD[7]. In the passage of the tomb, there is a "painted wooden box", and the east, north and west sides of the wooden box are painted with four figures, two of whom wear narrow-sleeved left tights, short hair, and bows and arrows; the other two also wear narrow-sleeved tights, holding musical instruments such as sheng and pipa, and all four are "ochre".
Observing the "ochre" style of the painted figures in the wooden box of Tomb No. 3 of Dulan, all of them are painted in red color on the high convex parts of the face such as the forehead, nose, chin, and cheeks, but the shape and part of the paint are different, and can be divided into three styles specifically: one is to combine the cheeks below the eyes with the bridge of the nose into a piece of red color, such as the two shooters on the east side of the box board and the west side of the box board; the second is to paint the two cheeks, nose, chin, etc. with dot-like red color, and the figure on the north side of the wooden board holding the pipa is painted The third is to paint the red color of the cheeks into three curved strips, such as the figure depicted on the north side of the boxboard. Observing the physical object, it was found that although the figure part was blurred, the imprint of the "ochre" coloring was very clear, indicating that the red color used in the painting should be mineral pigments such as cinnabar (Figure 1).
In August 2002, the Qinghai Provincial Institute of Culture and Archaeology and the Haixi Prefecture Museum of Nationalities jointly cleaned up two stolen burials, one of which was a single "samurai" tomb and the other a heterosexual joint tomb, which was buried at the end of the 8th century.[8] There are three wooden coffins in the two tombs, and the four coffins of the wooden coffins are painted on all four sides, and the three wooden coffins have six pieces of the head coffin board (end plate), depicting the contents of the "four gods", flowers and birds; there are many side plates, and the content of the paintings is rich and varied; the side panel of one of the wooden coffins is painted with six groups of pictures such as hunting, merchants, feasting, welcome, sacrifice, and acacia with Zampu and Zanmeng (king, queen) as the central figures, and the whole wooden board constitutes a big picture, and many of its characters have "ochre" red makeup.
From the published facsimile of the coffin, there are a total of 42 people who can be counted, and from the picture, their identities include kings and queens (Zampu, Zamong), waiters, merchants, archers, commoners and other characters with different identities, and their costumes and postures are also different. On the screen, it can be observed that there are 34 "ochre" characters with red color on the face (except for the back characters and missing heads), and their "ochre" forms are also painted with dotted, striped, and blocky red color on the forehead, nose, chin, cheeks, etc., and can be divided into "thirteen points", "nine points", "seven points", "five points" and so on. Except for the forehead, nose, and chin, the coating points on both cheeks are symmetrical in number and location. There are two special styles: one is to combine the cheeks with the bridge of the nose, all painted in red, such as the queen (Zamong), a horse merchant, a waiter behind Zamp, and a standing archer in the picture, a total of four people; the other style is to paint a horizontal strip of red color on the symmetrical cheeks or at the end of the eyes, eyebrows, cheeks, etc., which is found in various characters (Figure 2). The "ochre" style in the coffin paintings in Guo Limu's tomb cannot be seen from the identity and gender of the characters or the signature law, indicating that it may have been a common social custom to paint the face with red color at that time. Compared with the "ochre" style of the painted wooden box of Tomb No. 3 of Dulan Hot Water, its form and dotted parts are also the same, reflecting the consistency of this facial decoration custom in The Tubo culture around the 8th century AD.
Third, "ochre noodles" is the symbol of Tibetan culture
The examples of the "ochre noodles" figures in the two tomb woodblock paintings above vividly and directly confirm for the first time that the "ochre noodles" in Tubo "in the middle of the country" contained in the Book of Tang and other Chinese historical books are unquestionable historical facts. The two cemeteries are located in the eastern and northern edge grasslands of the Qaidam Basin on the south side of the Qilian Mountains, which were historically the territory of the Tuguhun Tribe, so the cultural characteristics of the two cemeteries are also of great concern. As far as the burial material itself is concerned, its rich cultural information still needs to be deeply analyzed and studied, and many scholars have also observed the factors of different cultures such as Tubo, Han Dynasty (Tang Dynasty) and even Central Asia. As far as the family and identity of the owner of the Tomb of Deling Hagolmu are concerned, there are several different views, such as Mr. Cheng Qijun's view that the "coffin paintings in the tomb of Guo Limu are relics of Tuguhun in the Grassland Kingdom... It depicts the colorful life of a king of Tuguhun and the social picture of that nation's era" [9]. Mr. Lin Meicun believes that Guo Limu "the two tombs are neither the 'Tomb of Tubo Zampu' nor the 'Tomb of King Tuguhun' as some scholars believe, it is most likely the tomb of su'e nobles." Moreover, the joint burial tomb is more likely to be the tomb of Garqinling, the son of the Tubo minister Lu Dongzan, and his princess Su'e[10]. In fact, regardless of the identity of the owners of the two tombs of Guo Limu, the custom of "ochre noodles" expressed in the coffin paintings should originate from Tubo. The Old Book of Tang contains the phrase "the princess is evil to her human essence, and praises the power of the state and dismisses it." A passage about the fifteenth year of Zhenguan (641) shows that at least in the middle of the 7th century AD, the custom of "ochre noodles" was already very popular in Tibet, which made Princess Wencheng, who had just come to Lhasa, feel difficult to accept for the first time when she witnessed such a strange custom. Therefore, this period of popular "ochre noodles" in Tibet is obviously earlier than the era of Qinghai Guolimu Tomb and Dulan Hot Water No. 3 Tomb. It can be speculated that the ban imposed by Songtsen Gampo on the custom of "ochre noodles" in the middle of the 7th century mentioned in the Old Book of Tang was not really implemented, and may never even have been banned in some areas, so as a symbol of Tubo's traditional culture, after Tubo annexed Tuguhun and occupied a large area such as the Hexi Corridor, the custom of "ochre noodles" spread even more. Therefore, some researchers pointed out that in the content of the coffin painting of Guo Li's wooden tomb, "it can be clearly referred to as the custom of the Tubo people is the ochre noodles ... It is a unique custom that has been formed by the ancient Tibetan people for a long time."
If the empirical evidence of the "ochre noodles" in the two tombs in Qinghai can be regarded as the spread and extension of the indigenous customs of Tubo in the "Dafan" state, then the "assimilation of customs" promoted by Tubo in the Hexi region after the "Anshi Rebellion" is a means of rule with a mandatory nature. Tubo At the beginning of the occupation of Dunhuang, Shang Qixin'er asked the people of Shazhou to change their clothes, learn to speak Mandarin, and tattoo their faces. The Zhang Huai Shen Stele reads, "Heluo Boiling ... And the transformation of the south... The appearance of the custom of "ochre noodles" in Dunhuang and other Hexi regions can be explained by the occurrence of the custom of "ochre noodles" in the "Records of the Cultivation of Merit of the Yin Virgins", such as "Bear black love son, dismantling the pepper to tattoo; Mandarin duck husband and wife, untying the sideburns and braiding the hair", which can show that the custom of "ochre noodles" appeared in Dunhuang and other Hexi regions, and was a racial and cultural symbol that accompanied Tubo's implementation of "fertilization" rule over the region [11].
The emergence of Tubo's "ochre noodles" as a custom in Qinghai and Hexi regions, whether it is an active imitation or passive acceptance, is a kind of transplantation of a different culture for non-Tubo culture. Moreover, the influence of this custom was far away, and it had reached thousands of miles away in Tang Chang'an City, and in Bai Juyi's poem "Makeup of the Times", the author had a very vivid description of this: "A round beard without sideburns (vertebrae) bun-like, oblique red without faint ochre-like." In the past, I was sent to Yi) 1 丨, Xin has seen and known. Yuan and makeup comb Jun remember, bun vertebrae face ochre non-Chinese style. [12] The poet not only pointed out that this "vertebral dragonfly" makeup style popular inside and outside Chang'an City was not a Han Chinese custom but a spread of a different culture, but also depicted in detail the style of "oblique red without halo" in the poem, which is almost exactly the same as the symmetrical oblique stripe of red color smeared on both sides of the cheeks in the Tubo "ochre noodles". It can be seen that it is precisely between the Tang and The Tang dynasties that the "ochre" makeup style was invisibly introduced to Han China and was accepted in other regions as a symbol of a different culture.
Iv. The Origin and Continuation of the "Ochre" Custom
How "ochre noodles" became a symbol or feature of Tibet's native culture during the Tubo period, and how its origin or early form was, has never been recorded in Tibetan historical documents, but some relevant records can be found in Chinese historical books. For example, under the "Female Kingdom" section of the Sui Book of the Western Regions, it is recorded that "the female kingdom, in the south of the Onion Ridge ... Wang's surname is Su E, the word is revealed at the end, and he reigned for twenty years... Both men and women paint in color, change it several times in one day, or several times... The climate is cold, and the industry is shooting and hunting. Out of the discovery stone, cinnabar, incense, yan cattle, horses, Shu horses. Especially a lot of salt, Heng will sell salt to heaven... In the sixth year of the reign of emperor, he sent envoys to pay tribute, but was later extinguished. [13] The relevant content of the "women's country" contained here should be somewhat helpful in examining the origin of the Tibetan custom of "ochre noodles".
First of all, the "Nüguo" contained in the Book of Sui is completely different from the "Eastern Nüguo" in the Book of Tang, and its land is "south of the Onion Ridge", and the ecological environment has "a cold climate, and the industry is to shoot and hunt... Youduo salt" and other characteristics, it should be located in the vast plateau area of western Tibet and northern Tibet, where the hunting and animal husbandry economy is the mainstay, the salt industry economy is supplemented, the Po Lake is dense, and the climate is severe and cold. Therefore, most scholars believe that the "female kingdom" in the Book of Sui should refer to the tribal alliance areas such as "Yangtong" (Zhangxiong) or "Su'e" that had been active in northwest Tibet before the establishment of the Tubo Dynasty. Secondly, the situation that "both men and women paint their faces in color, or change them several times in one day" in the "women's country" not only shows that the local face painting at that time is a common custom that does not distinguish between gender and identity, but also shows that the areas where this custom is popular should have sufficient and easily available natural resource conditions of color pigments, which should be inseparable from the production of "cinnabar" in the local area. Cinnabar is a mineral red pigment extracted from "hematite" (orange), and hematite red pigment appeared earlier in Tibet, and three or four thousand years ago, a stone grinding plate and small clay vase with red pigment were excavated at the Lhasa Qugong site, and the pigment properties were identified as hematite powder.[14] It was just that the dosage was not large at that time. Hematite pigments are used in large quantities in ancient petroglyphs in the Ali and Nagqu regions, and the era of petroglyphs predates the Tubo period[15], so the mineral red pigment (hematite/refined stone) resources in northwest Tibet are not only the main raw materials for local petroglyphs, but also may also become a source of pigments for "color coating" in the "Nüguo" period. Third, the "female kingdom" contained in the "Book of Sui" sent envoys to pay tribute to the Han Dynasty in the sixth year (586) of the opening of the Sui Wen Emperor, but it was only "extinguished later." It can be seen that long before the establishment of the Tubo Dynasty, the "female kingdom" at that time had considerable strength and could represent the western plateau side to make friends with the Han Dynasty, and at that time the local area was already "painted with color." Therefore, the "ochre noodles" that were popular in the Tubo kingdom seen in the Tubo kingdom around 641 when Princess Wencheng entered Tibet were not the earliest form of face decoration in Tibet, but a form of "colored noodles" that had been popular in the hunting tribes of the "women's country" a hundred years ago and continued to develop in the heart of Tubo. It can be speculated that the pioneering "ochre noodle" custom in Tibet was pioneered by the hunting tribes in northwest Tibet, and its origin should be a custom of the tribes in the alpine region of Tibet.
Regarding the custom of "colored faces" that was once popular in the "female country", there are also some clues or corroborating evidence in archaeological materials. For example, in the "Qionglong Yincheng" site in The Mengshi Township of Gar County, a large number of stone-resistant stones, grinding rods, grinding discs, stone whites and other relics of grinding red pigments have been found, and many of them have red traces on them. The site is dated from the 5th to the 7th century AD, carbon fourteenth measurement, and is very close to the era of the "female kingdom" mentioned in the Book of Sui.
We can speculate that the custom of "painting noodles with color" originated in the cultural areas of highland hunting tribes such as "Women's Kingdom", "Zhangxiong", and "Su'e", and by the time of tubo it had become a common custom in ancient Tibet, that is, "ochre noodles", which may imply a background for the merger and integration of culture and political forces, that is, the unification of the political and legal power of the plateau formed after the establishment of the Tubo Dynasty and the gradual prosperity of Buddhism, including Bon and "colored noodles." A series of cultural factors originating in the northwestern Region of Tibet have rapidly integrated into the "Tubo culture" as a whole in the hinterland of Tubo, and "ochre noodles", as a symbol of "Tubo culture", have appeared in Tuguhun and Hexi regions and even affected Chang'an with the expansion of Tubo's influence.
However, what is the reason why this makeup custom, which can be passed down from Chang'an, has not continued in the heartland of Tibet? In addition to the possible environmental differences caused by the utilitarian factors of "ochre noodles" (such as skin care, sunscreen, etc.), the decline of the custom of "colored noodles" may be related to the background of the Tibetan royal revival of Buddhism at that time. For example, there is a passage in the "Feast of the Sages" that is quite interesting: the Tubo Zangpu Chi Song de Zanxing Buddhist League (the Second League) accuses "the old religion of Tubo is actually not good, and the method of worshiping the gods is not in line with the rituals, so the people indulge in unwholesomeness, some people wear red faces, some people deliberately obstruct the state government, some people are addicted to making people sick, and some people are drunk on causing famine and famine" [16]. The "unwholesome" religion of the old Tibet mentioned here is obviously a non-Buddhist factor that Zampu strongly opposed at that time, and "red face" on the body or face is regarded as an alternative manifestation of "indulging in unwholesomeness". It is precisely because they represent the old religions that they are contrary to the royal consciousness of Buddhism at that time. In order to develop Buddhism, it is necessary to eliminate the old bad religion of Tibet, and it is in this context that the previous ban of Songtsen Gampo on "making the country in power and abolishing it" was put aside in the 9th century in the name of Kuangzheng Buddhist teachings, so that it was no longer popular in The Tubo "country". Although this speculation is only a hypothesis, a careful examination of the various Tibetan historical texts of the Tibetan dynasty seems to have not seen any record of "colored noodles" or "ochre noodles," which were once popular in the Tibetan country.
However, even after the fall of the Tubo Dynasty, the Tibetan custom of "ochre noodles" did not really disappear, but returned to its original environment and original functional state. In western Tibet, northern Tibet and other nomadic tribes, it has been preserved as a form of facial makeup and skin care and has been passed down to this day. For example, the Qing Codex $Tibet Chronicle contains "The Women of Ali Garto ... Shao Ai paints his face with sugar lipids or catechu[17] in a state of □□, similar to the face of Jiaozan painted in the youren, and the noodles are also powdered. [18] Or, as the Qing New Chronicle of Tibet says, "When a woman sees a lama, she must apply brown sugar or milk tea to her cheeks, or she will be punished for fear of being flattering and confusing the monks." Nowadays, however, this custom is not only true of lamas, but also at home. [19] In addition, "men also paint their faces with animal fat, probably in extremely cold places, and this habit is the most cloudy". In modern times, the ancient Tibetan "ochre noodles" have evolved into a women's face decoration custom, although men also have dough, but the real preservation of the "colored noodles" custom is the patent of the nomadic women.[21]
Looking at the origin, popularity, decline and continuation of the "ochre noodle" custom in Tibet, there are two interesting phenomena that may also be deeply analyzed and studied, one is that it first arose from the hunting tribes and finally remained among the nomadic tribes, which is a phenomenon of cultural return, or a result related to religion; second, there is no record of the "ochre noodle" custom of Tubo in Tibetan historical books, and all the accounts of Tibetan customs such as "ochre noodles" and "tu noodles" are from Chinese historical books. The significance of this distinction between the two is also a point of concern.
(Originally published in Journal of Tibetan Studies, Sichuan University Press, 2007)
exegesis:
[1] This paper is a phased result of the major project "Prehistory of Tibet" of the Key Research Base of Humanities and Social Sciences of the Ministry of Education, and the project approval number is 02JAZJD840011.
[2] See Huang Yan's Translation: Excerpt from the Feast of the Sages[5], Journal of the Tibet Institute for Nationalities, No. 4, 1980, pp. 40-41.
[3] See Dacang Tsongpa. Ban Kyaw Sambhu: Collected Histories of Han and Tibet, translated by Chen Qingying, p. 14, Tibet People's Publishing House, 1986.
[4] Reprinted from Chabai Tsering Phuntsok, Nuozhang Wu Jian, and Phuntsok Tsering: The General History of Tibet : A Treasure String of Pine Stones, translated by Chen Qingying, Kelsang Yixi, He Zongying, and Xu Decun, p. 11, Tibet Ancient Books Publishing House, 1996.
[5] See Chen Quzhen: Dreams of Dust in the Wilderness, Ren Naiqiang's Annotated Edition, p. 12, Tibet People's Publishing House, 1999.
[6] College of Archaeology, Peking University, Qinghai Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, ed.* Tomb of Tubo Tubo, Science Press, 2005.
[7] Xu Xinguo et al., "A New Specimen of Tang Dynasty Painting - Tubo Coffin Plate Painting", in Cultural Relics Heaven and Earth, No. 3, 2004.
[8] College of Archaeology, Peking University, Qinghai Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, eds., Tomb of Tubo Tubo, Dulan, pp. 127, 128.
[9] See College of Archaeology, Peking University, Qinghai Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, ed., Tomb of Tubo Tubo of Dulan, pp. 100-104, Figures 64 and 65, Plates 33 and 34.
[10] Xu Xinguo et al., "A New Specimen of Tang Dynasty Painting- Tubo Coffin Plate Painting", in Cultural Relics Heaven and Earth, No. 3, 2004, p. 21.
[11] Cheng Qijun, "Coffin Painting: A Social Picture of the Tuguhun People", in China National Geographic, No. 3, 2006 (Qinghai Album: Part 2), pp. 92-93.
[12] Lin Meicun, "Coffin Paintings: A Scroll of Subi Customs," in National Geographic of China, No. 3, 2006 (Qinghai Album: Part 2), pp. 96-98.
[13] Luo Shiping, "Coffin Paintings: A Picture Scroll of Tubo People's Lives", in China National Geographic, No. 3, 2006 (Qinghai Album: Part 2), pp. 94-95.
[14] For a reference to Tubo's "Fertilization" rule over the Hexi region, see Chen Guocan, "The Time Problem of the Fall of Tubo in the Tang Dynasty to Shazhou City", in Dunhuang Studies Series, No. 1, 1985.
[15] Quoted from Fan Xuezong, Wu Fengzhen, and Wang Chunjie, eds., Quan Tang Wen Quan Tang Poetry Tubo Historical Materials, Tibet People's Publishing House, 1988, pp. 454-455.
[16] Book of Sui, vol. 83. Column 48: Women's Garden, Zhonghua Bookstore, 1973, vol. VI, pp. 1850-1851.
[17] Huang Suying, "Report on the Identification of Red Color on the Surface of the Color Palette of the Qugong Site", in: Lhasa Qugong, ed., Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences and Tibet Autonomous Region Cultural Relics Bureau, China Encyclopedia Publishing House, 1999, p. 255.
[18] See Li Yongxian and Huo Wei, The Art of Tibetan Rock Paintings, Sichuan People's Publishing House, 1994.
[19] See Li Yongxian and Huo Wei, "Ruins of Qionglong Yincheng" in Aligar County, Tibet, Important Archaeological Discoveries in China (2004), Cultural Relics Publishing House, 2005.
[20] The Chinese translation of this passage in the "Feast of the Sages" is quoted from Luo Shiping: "The Coffin Paints the Life of the Tubo People", China National Geographic, No. 3, 2006 (Qinghai Album: Part 2), p. 94; the Chinese translation of the Zha Huangyan translator's annotated "The Feast of the Sages" translates as "The ancient Dharma of Tubo is not perfect, and the worship of gods and rituals is not in line with the rules, so many people doubt that (the Dharma) is not good, some people are worried about the decline of the regime, some people are worried about the occurrence of human epidemics and animal diseases, and some people suspect that natural disasters will fall", quoted from "The ancient Buddhism of Tubo is not perfect, and the worship of gods and rituals is not in line with the rules, so many people doubt that (Dharma) is not good, some people are worried about the decline of the regime, some people are worried about the occurrence of human epidemics and animal diseases, and some people suspect that natural disasters will fall", quoted from " Excerpt from the Feast of the Sages (IX), journal of the Tibet Institute for Nationalities, No. 4, 1982, p. 37.
[21] "Catechin: A small deciduous tree, produced in places such as Yunnan and India, where the wood is hard and red, and the juice that comes out is brown when it is dried... It has a hemostatic and analgesic effect, which was used in ancient Tibet to wipe the face. See Selected Notes of Zhao Zongfu: Selected Poems of The Yongzang of Past Dynasties, p. 177, Tibet People's Publishing House, 1987.
Reprinted from Archaeology of Tibet