Wu Jianxiong (1912-1997) | Image source: Carly Wilkins, U.S. Department of Energy
Editor's Note
The discovery of the name non-conservation in January 1957 was an epoch-making achievement in the history of modern science, in which three Chinese scientists Li Zhengdao, Yang Zhenning and Wu Jianxiong made the most important contributions, and Li Zhengdao and Yang Zhenning won the 1957 Nobel Prize in Physics, of which the Chinese nation is proud. But the Nobel Committee ignored Wu's contribution, which is also misread in today's Chinese world.
On February 20-21, 2021, after the intellectuals published the article "Wu Jianxiong's Immortal Contribution in the Discovery of Cosmic Non-Conservation (Part 1 and Part 2)", Wang Danhong discovered a doctoral dissertation in the Department of History of Science at Harvard University 20 years ago, "Wu Jianxiong's Wise Life".
Wang Danhong believes that compared with his own article and the books and materials currently collected, this paper collects the original data and specific analysis process of the Yuzhi Experiment (also known as the "Wu Experiment") led by Wu Jianxiong from 1956 to 1957 with stricter academic standards, clarifies or confirms the ambiguity and contradiction in the recollection of the parties involved in the Study of The Non-Conservation of Yuzhi, and fills in the missing key factual links. In particular, zhu Yulin, the author of the paper, pointed out that after the Rochester Conference on April 3-7, 1956, Li Zhengdao's first visit to Wu Jianxiong on the issue of cosmology in the "early spring of 1956" should be in mid-to-late April 1956, that is, before the first meeting and discussion between Lee Zheng-dao and Yang Zhenning in early May; before the press conference on January 15, 1957, the Department of Physics of Columbia University held an academic conference on January 13 to confirm that the conservation of the universe was overthrown by experiments, and the participants included Li Zhengdao. Wu Jianxiong and Yang Zhenning, etc.
Unfortunately, for more than 20 years, this paper on the history of science, which is of great historical value, has been little known. Today, Wang Danhong provides historical materials based on this paper, further analyzes the role of Wu Jianxiong in the discovery of cosmological non-conservation, and reflects on possible problems in today's research on the history of science.
Written by | Wang Danhong (Columnist of "Intellectuals")
Editor-in-charge | Chen Xiaoxue
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Preface
A cosmology is a physical quantity in quantum mechanics that characterizes the motion characteristics of microscopic particles. In 1927, the physicist Eugene Wigner (1902-1995) proposed the law of conservation of cosmology, pointing out that the motion or change of microscopic particle systems has a law of left-right symmetry, and its physical significance is that the particle system and its "mirror particles" have the same law of change. Twenty-nine years later, that law was broken. On June 22, 1956, theoretical physicists Li Zhengdao and Yang Zhenning submitted a paper questioning the conservation of cosmology in weak interactions; in early January 1957, experimental physicist Wu Jianxiong led the first experiment to overturn conservation of cosmology, and on January 15, Columbia University in New York held a press conference announcing that two experiments overturned conservation of cosmology. On October 31, 1957, the Swedish Nobel Prize Committee announced that Li Zhengdao and Yang Zhenning had won the 1957 Nobel Prize in Physics. In "Wu Jianxiong's Immortal Contribution to the Discovery of Cosmic Non-Conservation", I traced the reasons, processes and contributions of Wu Jianxiong's participation in the study of cosmological non-conservation from 1956 to 1957: inspired by Li Zhengdao's questions, she not only provided experimental ideas and some methods for Li Zhengdao and Yang Zhenning's 1957 Nobel Prize in Physics paper, but also led the first experiment to overturn the law of conservation of cosmology. This physically revolutionary experiment is known as the "Wu Experiment." After the article was published, my husband Wang Hongfei, when searching for relevant information, helped me obtain an electronic version of the January 2001 doctoral dissertation "Wu Jianxiong's Intelligent Life" of the Department of Science and History of Harvard University, which was 580 pages long, which was the result of ten years of research by the author YueLin Zhu, and could also be said to be the second biography of Wu Jianxiong after the writer Jiang Caijian's "First Lady of Physical Sciences - Wu Jianxiong" published in August 1996. Two basic facts in Zhu's paper surprised me: First, in this Harvard University paper on the history of science, the authors collected the original records of Wu Jianxiong's conservation experiments from 1956 to 1957 and the diary of the parties, which are the core materials lacking in the current research on the discovery of cosmic non-conservation, including The biography of Wu Jianxiong by Jiang Caijian. Second, the paper has extremely important academic value for the research of Wu Jianxiong and Yu name non-conservation, but in the 20 years since its completion, it has only been collected by a few libraries, including Harvard University, Chinese no introduction to the world. According to Google searches, the paper has been cited only three times, including a presentation by Chinese professor Wang Zuoyue about "Wu Jianxiong" for the English edition of the New Dictionary of Science Biography. Prior to Zhu Youlin's papers, Jiang Caijian's biography of Wu Jianxiong was published by Taipei Times Culture Publishing House in August 1996, republished by Fudan University Press in Shanghai in July 1997, and published its English translation by World Science Company in 2014, which became an important source of understanding of Wu Jianxiong in the world.
Left: Jiang Caijian's biography of Wu Jianxiong, published in August 1996
Right: Chien-Shieng Wu: An Intellectual Biography, Harvard University, January 2001
According to the original materials provided by Zhu Yuelin's dissertation, I carefully analyzed and clarified several missing, vague, and contradictory factual links in the process of cosmological non-conservation research, and tried to get closer to the truth of history and reflect on the possible problems in today's research on the history of science.
- Special instructions -
I am not a physicist, and all the physical concepts, descriptions and reviews of physical experiments in this article are from physicists and literature. As a science journalist who has covered the three major scientific prizes of the Nobel Prize for ten consecutive years and a science columnist with five years of experience, the author strives to present this history objectively and fairly through systematic analysis of the original data according to the research method of the history of science. If more new literature is discovered, the relevant research will be further refined.
Contents
1 Wu Jianxiong: "We are one stone to hit three birds"
2 Columbia University Physics Department Luncheon Wu Jianxiong briefly reported on the progress of the experiment
3 Luncheon will once again focus on the cobalt 60 experiment Internal discussion or disclosure to the "outside world"?
4 Columbia University Press Conference National Standards Agency "Not used"?
5 Media Coverage: From The New York Times to the People's Daily: Wu Jianxiong's name disappeared?
6 Gell-Mann: A statement that is false
7 Facts and truths
Left: Wu Jianxiong and Amber in the experiment, around 1957; Right: On December 27, 1956, Amberle's experimental record No. 90 showed that he saw two consecutive asymmetric effects for the first time in the experiment at 12:04 p.m. | Source: NATIONAL STANDARDS NIST
Finally, and most valuablely, I owe a credit to the 500-plus-page original experimental record of the Cobalt-60 Decay Cosmological Experiment, which was recovered and archived after a brief loss.
——Zhu Youlin, "The Wise Life of Wu Jianxiong", 2001.1
In 1980, two physicists who proved that charge conjugates are not conserved were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics, and their experiment was completed in 1964, the year Lee Also nominated Wu Jianxiong for the Nobel Prize in Physics.
How to understand Lee Jung-do's nomination?
Zhu's paper may provide an analysis: During Christmas in December 1956, Wu Jianxiong discussed new advances in experiments with Li Zhengdao and Yang Zhenning, and found that the experimental results not only showed that the universe was not conserved, but also that charge conjugate was not conserved, and proved the theory of neutrino dichotomy. This important information about the value of the "Wu Experiment" was not mentioned in my February 2021 article. (Editor's note: Jiang Caijian quoted Wu Jianxiong's 1988 retrospective article in Chapter 10 of "The Experiment of Two Thousand Feet Underground" in the biography of Wu Jianxiong, saying that the result of this experiment was "one stone killing three birds", and "three birds" is the cosmological non-conserved, charge conjugate is not constant, two-component neutrino theory.) ）
After analyzing Wu Jianxiong's role in the study of cosmological non-conservation from April 1956 to January 1957, Zhu wrote in the paper (P219/580):
It should be pointed out that during the cobalt-60 experiment, Wu continued to inform Li and Yang about the progress and results. Encouraged by this information, Li and Yang submitted another paper to the Physical Review before the results of the cobalt 60 experiment were officially announced... The paper is titled "Cosmological Non-Conservation and Neutrino Dijunctive Theory", which is another great theoretical breakthrough and another fruitful result of the experiment of discovering cosmological non-conservation in weak action.
This passage made me realize why the word "important discovery" was used in the Nobel Committee's award speech for physics on October 31, 1957, using the plural.
On October 31, 1957, Yang Zhenning and Li Zhengdao were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in recognition of their "profound exploration of the so-called conservation of cosmology principle, which led to major discoveries in the field of elementary particles." ”
However, almost all Chinese translations of "discoveries" fail to reflect the English plural "discoveries", and interpret the "discoveries" in Lee-Yang's Nobel Prize-winning speech as "discoveries that are not conserved in cosmology".
According to the clues of Zhu Jolin's paper, I think that the Nobel Prize speech refers to "several major discoveries in the field of elementary particles" should refer to the cosmological non-conservation, charge conjugate non-conservation, and neutrino dijunctive theory. They are embodied in three papers submitted by Li Zhengdao and Yang Zhenning on June 22, 1956, January 7 and 10, 1957, respectively: "The Question of Conservation of Cosmology in Weak Action", "Notes on Possible Non-immutability under Time Inversion and Charge Conjugate", and "Cosmological Non-Conservation and TheOry of Neutrino Divalence".
Left: The paper "Cosmological Non-Conservation and Neutrino Dijunctory", Physical Review, january 10, 1957, published on March 1. Right: The paper "Notes on the Non-invariance of Possibilities under Time Inversion and Charge Conjugate", received in The Physical Review on January 7, 1957, and published on April 15.
In the paper on the theory of neutrino diffusion, Li Zhengdao and Yang Zhenning thanked "Professor Wu Jianxiong for informing us about the progress of the cobalt-60 experiment".
Because Lee-Yang's winning paper is "Questioning the Conservation of Cosmology in Weak Action", we are accustomed to thinking that the "Wu experiment" only overturns the conservation of cosmology, ignoring that this experiment also overturns the conservation of charge conjugate and proves the two-component theory of neutrinos.
The latter two research achievements are also reflected in the paper published by Wu Jianxiong's research group and Lederman research group on January 15, 1957: "Experimental detection of cosmic conservation in β decay" and "Discovery of cosmic and charge conjugate non-conservation in meson decay: magnetic momentum of free leptons".
The available literature shows that on Christmas Day in December 1956, in the office of Li Zhengdao in the Department of Physics of Columbia University, Wu Jianxiong had made it clear in his discussions with Li Zhengdao and Yang Zhenning that the β decay experiment to test the conservation of the universe was to hit three birds with one stone. This should be the first joint discussion between the three people in the study of cosmology, and the first discussion between Yang Zhenning and Wu Jianxiong.
Wu Jianxiong led the experiment "Three Birds with One Stone", on December 11, 1957, Yang Zhenning mentioned in the Nobel Lecture of the Swedish Academy of Sciences "Conservation of Cosmology and Other Laws of Symmetry in Physics", he said (P86): "The collapse of the conservation law of cosmology has made a series of problems involving the law of symmetry in physics stand out. Let us now briefly discuss these issues in a general manner. As Dr. Lee Jeong-do will discuss, and as the experiments of Wu Jianxiong, Ambler, and their collaborators demonstrate, charge conjugate invariance does not hold for β decay. For weak interactions, another type of symmetry, i.e. temporal inversion invariance, is currently being studied experimentally..."
Years later, all three have written memories of the process.
Wu Jianxiong wrote in his memoirs in 1972 and 1983:
On a Thursday morning (during the Christmas holidays in December 1956), I hurried to the Puping conference room (of Columbia University's Physics Department) and passed Professor Lee's office, the door was open, Lee and Yang were inside, and I said hello to them, and they asked about the cobalt-60 experiment. I casually talk about what seems like a big asymmetry in the experiment. They were very excited and happy.
I met them again after the meeting and they wanted to know more. I told them that the effect was large and reproducible, but it had to be taken as preliminary because systematic testing had not yet been completed. I remember Yang (Zhenning) wondering if anyone had calculated the relationship between the G-T and Fermi interactions, and I told him M. Dr. Morita has carefully calculated that the interference depends on the signal between Ca and CV. I said I'm glad that the cobalt 60β decay transition is a pure Gamow-Teller conversion. This result is expected by the two-component theory of neutrinos in pure G-T transformation, which also means that in this case, the charge conjugate invariance does not hold. Thus, we are "one stone to three birds": cosmological non-conservation, charge conjugate non-conserved, and the two-component theory of neutrinos...
When clear evidence for the neutrino two-component theory emerged, Dr. Lee was pleased, saying it was a good result. He told me that in the summer of 1956, when he and Young were working on the cosmic problem, they not only discussed the two-component theory of neutrinos, but also came up with the details of this theory. However, they argue that publishing papers before the cosmological non-conservation was done before experimental observation and confirmation was too hasty.
Lee wrote in his 1986 essay "The Broken Universe":
At Christmas 1956, I had just finished the final revision of the appendix to my, Omi, and Yang Zhenning's paper... For the destruction of discrete symmetry, Wu Jianxiong β decay and Steinberg's baryon asymmetry experiments are still underway, but theoretical speculation has been extended not only to P (cosmic) and C (charge conjugate) destruction, but also to the destruction of T (time inversion) and CP. Then I looked at the last equation I just wrote down: this is about equations where asymmetric parameters may deviate from 1:
r = 衰变率(K+0 --- p- e+ v)/衰变率 (K+0 --- p- e+ v)
This is a testament to cp sabotage... I feel that whatever happens in the future, I will have to discuss these equations in this direction, and of course they will not have a chance to be confirmed in my lifetime.
However, things happened much faster than I expected...
Yang Zhenning wrote in his 1982 article "Wu Jianxiong Confirms The Non-Conservation of Cosmic Names": "The large asymmetry observed by the Columbia-National Bureau of Standards team means that in β decay, the invariance under charge conjugate is also destroyed. See previously R. Oehme's letters and papers [57e], and the references listed in [57s]... As a result of the discovery of the phenomenon of non-conservation of cosmology, Lee and I wrote a paper [57f] on the theory of two-component neutrinos. (Note: [57f] i.e. cosmological non-conservation and neutrino two-component paper)
In this discussion of the three people's Christmas holiday in 1956, Jiang Caijian wrote in the biography of Wu Jianxiong:
During the experiment, once Wu Jianxiong returned to Columbia, he happened to run into Yang Zhenning and Li Zhengdao, who asked about the experiment, and Wu Jianxiong told them that there seemed to be some positive results. Yang also asked about some of the key theoretical points, and Wu Told Him that M. Morita, a theoretical physicist from Japan who had joined the experimental group, was selected by M. Morita. Morita) has calculated that the β decay of Co60 is completely the Gemo-Taylor transformation, which means that they chose Co60 as the right radioactive source, and the experimental results are more reliable.
Jiang Caijian explained in the references that this passage came from Wu Jianxiong's 1972 article "A Researcher's Personal Recollection", but he ignored the timing of the three-person discussion and the key issues discussed: β Yu said that in the case of conservation destruction, the discussion of charge conjugate and time inversion conservation, the proof of the two-component theory of neutrinos, and did not mention the other two papers submitted by Li Yang in January.
Regarding the cosmological experiment led by Wu Jianxiong from 1956 to 1957 and at the same time proving that charge conjugate is not conserved, Jiang Caijian wrote in the October 2002 issue of Yang Zhenning's Biography : The Beauty of Norms and Symmetry (P272):
"In October 1957, not surprisingly, the Nobel Prize Committee announced that Yang Zhenning and Li Zhengdao had won the Nobel Prize in Physics that year, but there were no experimental physicists among the winners, especially Wu Jianxiong, who was the first to obtain experimental results, which caused some discussion. When the two experimental physicists who proved cp non-conservation in 1980 won the Nobel Prize, they did not consider Wu Jianxiong again, which also puzzled many people. ”
2 Wu Jianxiong briefly introduced the experimental progress at a luncheon of the Department of Physics of Columbia University
In the 1950s, Wu jianxiong was in the laboratory at Columbia University, where she was already a world authority on β decay experiments.
According to the historical data provided by Zhu Youlin's thesis, on Friday, December 28, 1956, Wu Jianxiong reported the new progress of the experiment at a luncheon in the Department of Physics of Columbia University. This fact is missing in my 2021 article and in Jiang Caijian's book.
Juyolin's paper shows that on December 27, 1956, Amber wrote on page 90 of the experimental record that two continuous asymmetric effects were seen for the first time in the experiment at 12:04 noon, which was the first time that the cobalt 60 experiment truly showed that the comology was not conserved. Wu, who was back in New York at the time and not in her Washington lab, cautioned herself and her collaborators that if the phenomenon were real, it would be a big discovery, but that stricter experimental examinations would have to be carried out before it could be announced to the outside world.
Meanwhile, she reported this progress within Columbia's Physics Department.
A week later, on the evening of January 4, 1957, based on the latest results of Wu's experiments, at the urging of Lee Jeong-do, Leon Lederman (1922-2018), a professor in the Department of Physics at Columbia University, and Richard Garwin (1928-) began a second cosmic experiment, and four days later, on January 8, the results were obtained. Thirty-nine years later, both Ledman and Gavin gave email interviews to Jujolin.
Lederman's November 24, 1996 email to Joolin recalls that at the end of December 1956, he attended a Christmas party held by Columbia University's physics department to discuss the progress of Wu Jianxiong's cobalt 60 experiment, and he remembered that Lee Wasong-do was the central figure in the discussion, but he could not remember the specific date.
Gavin's December 3, 1996 e-mail to Joolin wrote: "On Friday, December 28, 1956, at the 'Shanghai Hotel' at the Chinese restaurant 'Shanghai Hotel' on 125th Broadway Avenue, columbia University's Department of Physics held a 'Friday luncheon', and Wu Jianxiong briefly reported on the cobalt-60 experiment. ”
At the intersection of 125 Broadway Avenue in New York, from 1956 to 1957 there were two Chinese restaurants, the 'Shanghai Hotel' and the 'Tianjin Hotel', and the "White Rose Cafe", where physicists discussed the problem of non-conservation of cosmology, which no longer exists. Photo by Wang Danhong on June 24, 2021
Based on content and temporal analysis, Lederman's recollection of the Columbia Physics Department's Christmas party at the end of December 1956, and Gavin's recollection of the Columbia Physics Department's "Friday Luncheon" on December 28, 1956, should have been the same gathering, as it was unlikely that the Physics Department would meet twice a week.
On Saturday, December 29, Wu Jianxiong telephoned Lee to inform Lee that the results of the cobalt-60 experiment really showed that the cobalt-60 experiment was not conserved, but further examination was needed to determine the exact magnitude of the damage.
Because of the results of the new experiment, between the Christmas holidays in 1956 and the New Year in 1957, Wu Jianxiong and his collaborators, Lee Jeong-do and Yang Zhenning began a new round of intensive work. But for Lederman, despite repeated urgings by Lee Andong-do and Yang Zhenning to do another experiment, he remained determined to do it until the next "Friday lunch."
3 Lunch will again focus on the cobalt 60 experiment
Internal discussion or disclosure to the "outside world"?
At the Friday luncheon of Columbia University's Department of Physics (January 4, 1957), the topic was once again about the positive results of the cobalt-60 experiment. —Gavin's email to Jujolin on December 3, 1996.
Zhu Youlin's paper shows that on January 2, 1957, Wu Jianxiong returned to the National Bureau of Standards and systematically inspected the entire experiment with collaborators, and completed the inspection in the early morning of the 9th.
Lee Jung-do recalled in 1986's "Broken Universe": "On Thursday, January 3, the second week, Wu Jianxiong came to my office and said that she had checked all the corrections, and the effect of the damage was very large. I assured her that it was an excellent result because it was consistent with the two-component theory. Then I immediately called Ledeman in Nevis and Young in Princeton. ”
Lee jung-doo strongly demanded on the phone that Ledeman must do it
experiment. Ledeman said he would come to Columbia's Physics Department's Puping Lab the next day for a Friday luncheon.
On Friday, January 4, at Columbia Physics' Academic Lecture Day, "Wu's Friday-Lunch," Lederman decided to do a cosmic experiment and went to the lab with Gavin at 10 p.m. that same day to begin the experiment. Miraculously, they got the results of the experiment four days later.
Zhu's paper shows that at about 6 a.m. on January 8, Lederman called Li Zheng and said, "Yu is dead," and that afternoon, The Lederman's team wrote the experimental paper but did not submit it because they thought "it was inappropriate for our results to be printed before the work of Professor Wu and her collaborators." ”
Li Zhengdao recalled this situation in his 1986 article "The Broken Universe": On January 4, 1956, columbia University's Department of Physics "Friday lunch", "At the Shanghai Coffee Shop, I repeatedly talked about Wu's results of cosmic destruction, the two-component theory, etc., and the discussion quickly focused on how to do it
Experimentally. Ledeman, he had a student, Marcel Weinrich, who was doing a correlation
Capture decay
To do a new experiment, he only needs to slowly turn the already existing calculator to see if there is an angular asymmetry in the direction of the final electron. Another method was with latex, which Oril said he was willing to try, and it was later discovered that V. Telegdi and Friedman have already started the experiment in Chicago. ”
Lederman's group in the paper "In
The destruction of conservation of cosmology is observed in meson decay: freedom
The magnetodynamics of mesons cites two papers that Li Zhengdao and Yang Zhenning have not yet published: charge conjugate and temporal inversion conservation problems under the condition of cosmic non-conservation, and the two-component theory of neutrinos.
40 years later, the parties recall the process.
According to Zhu's paper, on November 24, 1996, Lederman's e-mail to Juyolin wrote: Lee (Zhengdao) announced that the results of the experiment obtained by Wu showed great destructiveness, and although consistent with Li-Yang's paper, the degree of cosmic destruction was still smaller than it was thought. So I rushed back to Uzumaki to do it
Experiments with the hope of obtaining greater effects. When I checked Schwartz's
During the meson lifespan experiment, I realized that we could easily turn this experiment into a cosmic study.
Jiang Caijian's "Biography of Yang Zhenning" shows that on January 15, 1957, Yang Zhenning sent a telegram to Oppenheimer, who was on vacation in the Caribbean, informing Wu Jianxiong that his experiments showed great asymmetrical results. It is worth mentioning that Yang Zhenning wrote in his 1982 article "Wu Jianxiong Confirms that The Universe Is Not Conserved": "On January 15, I sent a telegram to Oppenheimer, who was on vacation in the Virgin Islands. The cable said: 'Wu Jianxiong's experiment produced a large asymmetry, showing that G equals G'. Thus, neutrinos are a two-component wave function. ’”
According to the contents of the telegram, I think that Yang Zhenning's telegram is more likely to have been sent on January 5 than on January 15, because on January 15, the claim that non-conservation has been confirmed, and if it was a telegram sent at that time, the content should be to report new discoveries.
Zhu Jolin's paper shows that hudson of the National Bureau of Standards recorded in his diary on January 9, 1957: the experimental results of The Lederman group were transmitted to the National Bureau of Standards, and the cobalt 60 experimental group began to work day and night; on the 10th (6:00 a.m.), the system check was correct, and the cobalt 60 experimental group celebrated the success with a bottle of French red wine; and the cobalt 60 experimental group conducted a control test on the morning of the 10th-12th.
According to the information cited by Zhu Youlin, on the afternoon of Saturday, January 12, the members of Wu Jianxiong's experimental group discussed the first draft of the paper written by Wu Jianxiong: "Testing the Conservation of Cosmic Names in the Decay of β", and five members signed the paper. At 9:30 p.m., Hudson drove along with Amberle and Hayward to take Wu Jianxiong to the airport to return to New York.
Wu Jianxiong's experimental group wrote in the paper:
According to Li and Yang, the current experimental results (show) not only the conservation of the cosmology is destroyed, but also the charge conjugate invariance is also destroyed; furthermore, the invariance of time inversion can also be deduced according to the β decay asymmetry, and this effect will continue to be studied.
The paper cites papers submitted but not yet published by Li Zhengdao, Ou Mi and Yang Zhenning, and the authors thank Professor Li Zhengdao and Yang Zhenning for their inspiring discussions with Wu Jianxiong, a member of the experimental group.
Rabbi, a physics professor at Columbia University who was a 1944 Nobel Laureate in Physics, was on an academic sabbatical at MIT at the time, and around Jan. 9, he received the results of Wu's experimental group and Lederman's experimental group, and called Professor Schwenger, a theoretical physicist at Harvard University.
Regarding the research from the end of December 1956 to January 10, 1957, Jiang Caijian wrote in the biography of Wu Jianxiong:
When Mr. Wu returned to New York for the Christmas holidays in 1956, their experiment was almost a success. But Wu Jianxiong was very worried, on the one hand, she could hardly believe that there would be such a strange phenomenon in nature, and on the other hand, she was afraid that they would make some mistakes in the experiment. Although she told Yang Zhenning and Li Zhengdao the latest results of the experiment, she said she would check again and ask them not to disclose the news to the outside world for the time being.
However, the young Lee Jung-do was clearly not impressed, and on January 4, 1957, Columbia's Physics Department held another "Friday lunch" that he told the participants at this meeting. Lederman, an experimental physicist who was also at Columbia University at the time, heard the news and thought that if the universe already knew that it was not conserved in the weak interaction, then with his ongoing experiments, plus some small luck, might be able to take advantage
and
particles, another experiment that can verify the non-conservation of the universe (author's note: the original universe is a typo, should be a cosmology).
It should be noted that this account of Jiang Caijian may be inaccurate and contradictory:
First, Wu Jianxiong's original text did not "ask them (Li Zhengdao and Yang Zhenning) not to disclose the news to the outside world for the time being", but advised them not to rush to cite this result in their papers, which she said in her 1973 memoir: "At that time I was still hesitant to have them quote the results but promised to give them our affirmative." answer soon”。 At the same time, she warned colleagues in the experimental group not to announce it to the outside world until the strict inspection was completed.
Second, Wu Jianxiong informed Li Zhengdao and Yang Zhenning of the latest experimental results during the Christmas period in 1956, which was a discussion between peers, and Li Zhengdao reported on the progress of Wu Jianxiong's experiment at an academic symposium on January 4, 1957, which was also an academic exchange between closely cooperating peers, not "outside". Of course, "outside" can have a narrow and broad interpretation, and for Jiang's description, I think that peer discussion and public disclosure are two different things, and do not belong to the "outside world".
Third, Jiang Caijian wrote in the book that at the end of December 1956, Amber also wrote a letter about the progress of the experiment to Tian Mo, who was visiting Switzerland, and Tian Mo told Pauli; on January 5, 1957, Yang Zhenning sent a telegram to Oppenheimer on vacation to inform Wu Jianxiong of the new results of the experimental group. Is this revealing information to the "outside world"?
4 Columbia University press conference
National Bureau of Standards "unused"?
January 15, 1957 Press conference of the Department of Physics at Columbia University in New York, front row is Wu Jianxiong (first left), Lee Jeong-do, and second row: Amberle, Hudson, Hops (National Bureau of Standards) | Source: Archives of Jianxiong Wu, Department of Physics, Columbia University. Jiang Caijian's biography of Wu Jianxiong shows that he consulted the archive, but does not cite this historic photograph of the scene.
Wu Jianxiong's experimental group and Lederman's experimental group, independent of each other, supported and confirmed each other, becoming the decisive experimental evidence to overturn the law of conservation of cosmology. On January 15, 1957, two experimental groups simultaneously submitted papers to the Physical Review.
At two o'clock in the afternoon on Tuesday, January 15, 1956, the Department of Physics at Columbia University held a press conference in professor Rabbi's office, where he announced that theoretical physicists and experimental physicists had jointly overturned the law of conservation of cosmology. In a sense, he said, a fairly complete theoretical structure has been fundamentally shattered, and we don't know how these fragments will come together again in the future.
Wu Jianxiong, Amber, Hudson, Hopps, Lee Zhengdao, Gavin and Lederman attended, and Yang Zhenning was invited but not present.
But how do physicists confirm that conservation of cosmology has been overturned by experiments? Zhu's paper provides an important historical fact that before the Jan. 15 press conference, rabbi hosted an academic symposium in Columbia University's Department of Physics to confirm the discovery of cosmic non-conservation, an important detail that is missing in Both Jiang's book and my article.
Juylin's paper shows that on Sunday, January 13, (1957), Amber, Hops, and Anderson flew from Washington to New York in the morning for a colloquium at Columbia University's Puping Physics Experiment Building 831. The meeting was chaired by Professor Rabbi and was attended by members of one theory group and two experimental groups, namely: Lee Jeong-do and Yang Zhenning, Wu Jianxiong, Gavin and Lederman, as well as Amberle, Hayward and Hudson.
Jiang Caijian's description of the Jan. 15 press conference in "The Biography of Wu Jianxiong" is:
On January 15, the day Two historic papers by Wu Jianxiong, Ledman, Gavin, and others were sent to the Physical Review, Columbia University did something unprecedented, holding a press conference for the new discovery. Columbia's most senior rabbi in physics at the time received a call from MIT, where he was on paid leave, asking him to come back and chair the press conference. The press conference was held at two o'clock that afternoon at the Puping Physics Experiment Building, and Columbia scientists related to this new scientific discovery, including Wu Jianxiong, Li Zhengdao, Ledeman, Gavin and others, attended.
Yang Zhenning, who was at the Institute of Advanced Study in Princeton at the time, did not come to attend. In a collection of papers published in 1983 to celebrate Yang's 60th birthday, he wrote: "I don't think the idea of using a press conference to announce a new scientific development is very stylish. Scientists at the National Bureau of Standards also feel quite unused about these promotional activities at Columbia.
This narrative created the illusion that scientists from the National Bureau of Standards did not attend the press conference and were rather unused by the promotion of Columbia.
In fact, Juyolin's paper shows that at the Academic Conference on January 13, the rabbi only invited Amberle to attend the press conference on the 15th, but Hudson strongly demanded that the four collaborators of the National Standards Bureau should all participate, and on the 15th, Amberle, Hudson and Hopps attended the press conference, that is, Hudson and other National Standards Bureau scientists not only actively participated in the press conference of Columbia University, but also attached great importance to media reports, January 16 and 17, The Washington Post and Life. The magazine's reporter went to the National Bureau of Standards for an interview.
In addition, The Columbia press conference is not "unprecedented". Physicist Zhao Tianchi pointed out in the 2017 edition of "The Story of Heavenly Languages and Stories: A Commentary on Lee Zheng-do" (P329) that theoretical physicist Jamie Bernstein, in his May 12, 1962 New Yorker article "Side Notes on the Cosmic Problem", called the Columbia University press conference "unprecedented", perhaps because of Bernstein's beginning, many physicists' memoirs described the press conference as "unprecedented", but this statement is obviously inconsistent with historical facts. On October 19, 1955, the University of California, Berkeley, held a press conference on the discovery of antiprotons. Fifteen months later, at Columbia University's press conference on the discovery of the discovery of the non-conservation of cosmology on January 15, 1957, elementary particle physicists should remember the University of Berkeley's press release vividly.
According to the timeline of the Nobel Prize judging process, the deadline for nominations for the Nobel Prize is January 31 of that year. On January 15, 1957, Columbia University announced the overthrow of the law of conservation of cosmology, and the contribution of three groups of ten scholars, unrelated to the Telegett Experimental Group of the University of Chicago, should have been a prerequisite for Lee Zhengdao Yang Zhenning to be nominated before the January 31, 1957 deadline.
5 Media reports from The New York Times to People's Daily: Wu Jianxiong's name disappeared?
January 16, 1957 The New York Times reported on the front page (left) that the universe was not conserved, and the 24th edition (right) published the full text of the "Columbia Newspaper Experimental Notice".
On Wednesday, January 16, 1957, the New York Times headlined "Fundamental Concepts of Physics Allegedly Overturned by Experiments" with the subtitle "Conservation of Cosmology in Nuclear Theory Challenged by Scientists at Columbia and Princeton Institutes."
The Columbia Report On Physics Experiments, published in the 24th edition of The New York Times on the same day, ended with a list of three groups of ten scientists who contributed to the discovery of the non-conservation of cosmology:
On Thursday, January 17, 1957, the New York Times published an editorial titled "Appearance and Reality," in which it was written: "It is believed that this event (the discovery of the unconserved universe) has removed the main roadblock on the road to a unified theory of the fundamental units of the universe. Perhaps, the unified theory will take another twenty years to perfect, but physicists are now confident that they have finally found a way out in the current 'cosmic jungle'. ”
According to Hua Xinmin and Wang Zuoyue's 2017 article "Li Zhengdao Yang Zhenning Suffered Cold Treatment: 60 Years Ago Chinese Won the Nobel Prize for the First Time," (1957) On January 18, Taipei's Central Daily reported: "The law of reciprocity was fundamentally shattered, and Columbia University announced that my three scientists had contributed." On January 27, the Central Daily translated the full text of the Columbia University physics experiment report published by the New York Times on January 16.
Left: People's Daily, February 23, 1957, first edition; Right: "Reference News" March 2, 1957, introducing the major discoveries of Yang Zhenning, Li Zhengdao. Source: Hua Xinmin Wang Zuoyue, "Li Zhengdao Yang Zhenning Suffered Cold Treatment - More than 60 years ago Chinese won the Nobel Prize for the first time"
However, at that time, the new Chinese media reported that Wu Jianxiong was missing.
February 23, 1957 "People's Daily" xinhua news agency 22 news, "a major discovery in nuclear physics I stayed in the United States two scientists to prove that the law of conservation of cosmology is not a universal law" -
Chinese physicists li zhengdao and Yang Zhenning who studied in the United States have discovered a major problem in nuclear physics. This new discovery has aroused great attention and reaction from the scientific community in our country. The Chinese Academy of Sciences held an academic lecture in Beijing yesterday. Zhu Hongyuan, a researcher at the Institute of Physics and a theoretical physicist, introduced this discovery that has attracted the attention of the international physics community at the meeting. Physicists such as Zhao Zhongyao, Qian Sanqiang, Peng Huanwu, Zhang Wenyu, and Zhu Hongyuan all made enthusiastic speeches on this issue.
Xinhua News Agency, February 28 --
NEW YORK NEWS: The major discoveries of young Chinese physicists li zhengdao and Yang Zhenning in nuclear physics have shaken the American scientific community and attracted the attention of physicists around the world.
People's Daily's March 1 article "Li Zhengdao and Yang Zhenning's major discoveries in nuclear physics have caused great shock to the American scientific community."
The "Annals of Qian Sanqiang" records that on February 21, 1957, the Institute of Physics of the Chinese Academy of Sciences presided over a report meeting on "Chinese scholars studying in the United States Li Zhengdao and Yang Zhenning proved that the law of cosmology is not a universal law".
At that time, New China and the United States did not establish diplomatic relations, how did the news that the universe was not conserved was obtained?
According to the articles of Hua Xinmin and Wang Zuoyue, on January 17, 1957, the "Missionary Dynamics" wrote:
When the Soviet Union held a conference on high-energy particles in physics last year, two theoretical physicists in the United States conveyed to my representative that Yang Zhenning had the intention of returning to China, and qian Sanqiang wrote to Yang to persuade him to return to China and imply that Du Yuming was still alive and did not need to worry. When physicist Zhang Wenyu returned to China from the United States last year, Yang once said to Zhang that he had received a letter of money and was very grateful, but he still had concerns about returning to China.
On August 7, 2020, theoretical physicist Academician He Zuoxiu made factual additions to the articles of Hua Xinmin and Wang Zuoyue:
1 Mr. Wang Chengshu and Mr. Zhang Wenyu gave you (Yang Zhenning) to them, and you published it on Phys.Rev, and the preprint of the article "On the Conservation of Cosmology under Weak Interaction" was specially handed over to me;
2 Therefore, when the experimental results of Wu Jianxiong and others were published, everyone thought that it was a major scientific event... At that time, many articles and reports on this issue published by newspapers and periodicals such as the People's Daily, as well as articles published in an internal journal, were related to me or were written by me.
My question is: In February 1957 and later, He Zuoxiu, a 30-year-old staff member of the Central Propaganda Department, wrote these articles on the basis of which materials?
Murray Gell-Mann (1929-2019) was awarded the 1969 Nobel Prize in Physics, pictured around 1954 by Gell-| University of Chicago Library, Special Collections Research Center.
Gell-Mann knew that Wu was the top expert in β decay experiments, so in 1959 he asked Wu Jianxiong, who was also attending a physics conference at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, to test their theories (Editor's Note: A theory proposed by Gell-Mann and Feynman entitled "Fermi Interaction Theory", published in the Physical Review on January 1, 1958). He also famously said, "How much time did Yang Zhenning and Li Zhengdao spend convincing you to test their theories?" ——Jiang Caijian, Wu Jianxiong Biography, 1996
This statement about Murray Gell-mann in Jiang Caijian's Biography of Wu Jianxiong does not conform to the facts, but it is falsely rumored and even entered the Encyclopedia of the United States, confusing the importance of Wu Jianxiong's contribution to the discovery of the non-conservation of the universe.
The first time I read Gell-Mann's remarks was in 1998 when I read Jiang Caijian's biography of Wu Jianxiong, and I was curious: In 1959, Gell-Mann, who was only 30 years old, was a young professor at the California Institute of Technology, and Wu Jianxiong, 47, a senior full professor at Columbia University, how could he "ask Wu Jianxiong to test their theories"? Moreover, when will Li Zhengdao and Yang Zhenning ask Wu Jianxiong to do the cosmic experiment?
Jiang Caijian explained in the references that this story originated in the May 20, 1963 issue of Newsweek. On April 12, 1995, Gell-Mann visited Taipei and informed the author (here jiang Caijian) of the story, saying that Wu Jianxiong wanted them to calculate the corrections before they were willing to do the experiment. Later, after Gell-Mann made calculations and published them, Wu Jianxiong began to do experiments. ”
However, Jiang Caijian clearly wrote in the book that the experimental idea of β cobalt 60 in Li Zhengdao Yang Zhenning's paper on whether cobalt 60 is conserved or not comes from Wu Jianxiong, and in May 1956, when Li Yang was still studying, Wu Jianxiong had proposed to test the concept and method of cosmic conservation with β decay experiments, and called Amberle on June 4, 1956, to discuss cooperative experiments.
When Jiang Caijian interviewed Gell-Mann face-to-face, why didn't he point out that this sentence was inconsistent with the facts? Moreover, where did Gell-Mann hear that it was Yang Zhenning and Li Zhengdao who persuaded Wu Jianxiong to test their theories?
In his book, Jiang Caijian uncritically quotes Gell-Mann as "How much time Did Yang Zhenning and Lee Zhengdao Spend Convincing You to Test Their Theory" and analyzes the reasons why Wu Jianxiong did not win the Nobel Prize. He wrote (P306):
Of course, Wu Jianxiong has not been favored by the Nobel Prize, which also means that some scientists do not think that her work deserves this award. Like her series of work on β decay, although her contribution to the physical sciences is extremely important, it is not a big invention or a big discovery in the standard rules of the nobel prize, and some scientists think that her completion of 'cosmology is not conserved' and 'conservation of vector flow' are theories proposed by others. However, these arguments are not quite agreed with by most famous scientists. ”
As the author of Wu Jianxiong's biography, Jiang Caijian studied the relevant original literature and interviews, but did not understand the essence of Wu Jianxiong's contribution to the discovery of unconserved universe, which is a pity.
The next time I read Gell-Mann's remarks was in March 2021, after the publication of my immortal contribution to the discovery of Wu Jianxiong in the discovery of the non-conservation of cosmology, I read the 2012 article "Wu Jianxiong" published in the New Dictionary of Scientific Biographies, written by Wang Zuoyue, a professor of history at the California State Polytechnic University Pumona, who also quoted Gell-Mann in the article:
When initial experiments failed to confirm the CVC hypothesis, Gell-Mann turned to Wu, reportedly pleading: “How long did Yang and Lee pursue you to follow upon their work?” (McGrayne, 1993, p. 278) (Note: The "pleading" in this article should be translated as "request" or "pleading," not "demand.") ）
Wang Zuoyue's article suggests that this quote originated from the book "Nobel Prize Women in Science" published by American author Sharon Bertsch McGrayne in 1993.
I found the second edition of "Women in Science in the Nobel Prize" in 2006, which reads in the section "Wu Jianxiong" (P277):
At a 1959 physics meeting at MIT, Gell-Mann Pleaded with Wu to test his theory. ”How long did Yang and Lee pursue you to follow up their work?” he asked. Wu told him that she was too busy. Finally, in December 1963, she did an experiment that confirmed the Law.
McGrayner's sentence has two problems: first, she unanalyzedly cites Gell-Mann's erroneous remarks and does not indicate the source of the sentence; second, Wu Jianxiong completed Gell-Man's experiment at the end of December 1962, not December 1963. McGrayne explained after the article that she had interviewed Wu Jianxiong and Yang Zhenning, but not Lee Zhengdao and Gell-Mann.
From the publication of McGrayne's book in 1993, the publication of Jiang Caijian's biography of Wu Jianxiong in 1996, to the biography of Wu Jianxiong written by Wang Zuoyue for the New Dictionary of Scientific Biography in 2012, Gell-Mann's erroneous remarks were spread in such a way that they were falsely spread and even entered the scientific literature.
7 Facts and Truths
The January 16, 1957 issue of the New York Herald Tribune, titled "Physics 'Principle' Wrong Mirror Refection Not True," reported on nine men and one woman smashing a scientific cornerstone, accompanied by a large photograph of experimental physicist Wu Jianxiong at a Jan. 15 press conference. （Nine men and a woman shattered one of the solid pillars of the science of physics yesterday）。 In Jiang Caijian's "Biography of Wu Jianxiong", there is no historical photo.
What I want to say about wisdom is that whether you are studying something or thinking about any philosophy, just ask yourself: What are the facts? And what is the truth (or truth) that these facts confirm? —English philosopher Bertrand Russell (1872-1970)
The 1957 Nobel Prize committee in physics not only ignored Wu's important role in the discovery of the non-conservation of cosmology, but also misunderstood her contribution.
On December 10, 1957, at the Nobel Prize Ceremony held in Stockholm, Sweden, the Nobel Prize Committee on Physics Klein (O.B. Klein) said in his awards speech:
This year's Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Professor Li Zhengdao and Professor Yang Zhenning on the basis of some fundamental physical principles, the so-called "conservation of cosmology" – a very certain law of nature: left-right symmetry – in the application of elementary particles and their reactions... In fact, most of us tend to think that the symmetry of elementary particles to the right and left is a necessary consequence of the universal law of left-right symmetry in nature, and thanks to Lee and Yang and the experimental findings they inspired, we now know that this is a mistake.
The basic fact is that Wu Jianxiong not only led the completion of the first experiment to overthrow the conservation of the cosmic name, but also, in the early spring of 1956 (Zhu Jolin pointed out in the paper that this time should be mid-to-late April), in a discussion with Lee Zhengdao, she proposed the concept and method of this experiment, and became the main experimental method in Li-Yang's June 22 paper, while the Lederman experimental group did the experiment based on the inspiration of Li Yang's paper and the "Wu experiment".
The discovery of the non-conservation of the universe is a revolutionary achievement in modern physics, in which the three Chinese scholars made the most important contribution, but because the Nobel Prize ignored Wu Jianxiong's contribution, she was far less valued in the Chinese world than Li Zhengdao and Yang Zhenning, and the focus of public attention was more on the cooperation and division between Li Zhengdao and Yang Zhenning.
Years later, the witnesses of the study of cosmological non-conservation wrote reminiscences from their own experiences and perspectives, including vague and confusing facts, as well as contradictory statements.
Jiang Caijian and Zhu Youlin, who began to study Wu Jianxiong in 1989 and 1991 respectively, the difference between the two is that Zhu Yulin is more professional and objective in his research on Wu Jianxiong according to the academic standards of the Department of History of Science of Harvard University, and Jiang Caijian's research on Wu Jianxiong is selective in the use of original literature, and his research not only fails to clarify Wu Jianxiong's unique and important contribution to the discovery of cosmological non-conservation, but also confuses the importance of her leading experiments with the first two other experiments, resulting in misreading and illusion. It's a shame.
Zhu Youlin carefully examined the time of the first discussion between Lee Zheng-do and Wu Jianxiong in mid-to-late April 1956, before the first discussion between Lee Zheng-do and Yang Zhenning, and based on this fact, it should be possible to help analyze and confirm the contributions of Lee Zheng-do, Wu Jianxiong, and Yang Zhenning in this research, because these time nodes are extremely critical to the study of Wu Jianxiong's role in the discovery of the non-conservation of the universe. Moreover, more importantly, he also found the original records of the cosmological non-conservation experiment led by Wu Jianxiong and interviewed the parties of the "Wu experiment", according to these original materials with extremely important information, Wu Jianxiong's contribution to the discovery of the non-conservation of cosmology in 1956-1957 also has a factual basis for re-study.
Sixty-five years after the study of the non-conservation of cosmology in 1956-1957, it exists not only in the memories of the parties involved, but also in experimental records, papers, conference records, news reports, archives and review articles. Zhu's doctoral dissertation, completed in 2001, has been hidden in several libraries such as Harvard University for 20 years and is little known. Today, this rigorous academic paper should become a new historical material for Wu Jianxiong and Yu's non-conservation historical research, and its scientific history research method is worth learning.
The study of the history of science is not to prove a certain idea, but to unearth facts and conduct scientific analysis, striving to get closer to the truth. As Russell said: Whether you're studying something or thinking about any philosophy, just ask yourself: What are the facts? And what is the truth (or truth) that these facts confirm?
On February 11, 2021, The International Day of Women and Girls in Science, which also happened to be the first day of the first lunar month of the Chinese New Year, the U.S. Postal Service released a permanent commemorative stamp of Wu Jianxiong, thus becoming the third immigration scientist to appear on the U.S. stamp after Einstein and Fermi.
Acknowledgements: The author thanks Wang Zuoyue and Hua Xinmin for reading and correcting the first draft of this article.
References and Notes:
1. YeuLin Zhu: Chien-Shiung Wu: An Intellectural Biography ,PhD thesis, the Department of the History of Science, Harvard Universitty.
2. Li Zhengdao: Wu Jianxiong and Yuzhi Non-Conservation Experiment 2015.12.09. Mr. Sai
3. Jiang Caijian, The First Lady of Physical Sciences, Fudan University Press, 1997.3
4. Ji Cheng, Liu Huaizu, Teng Li, ed., "The Mystery of the Controversy over the Discovery of Cosmic Non-Conservation – Li Zhengdao's Answer to Science Times Reporter Yang Xujie's Question about Relevant Information" 2003.
5. Jiang Caijian, "The Beauty of Norms and Symmetry - A Biography of Yang Zhenning", Taiwan Tianxia Vision Publishing Co., Ltd., 2002.10
6. Chien-Shiung. Wu: One Persearcher’s Personal Account, Published in Adventures in Experimental Physics()Vol. Gamma, 1972.
7. Chien-Shiung Wu: The Discovery of the Parity Violation in Weak Interactions and Its Recent Developments, Nishina Commemorativ Lecture, Tokyo: Nishina Memorial Foundation, Publication No. 19, 1983
8. R. Budde, M. Chretien, J. Leitner, N. P. Samios, M. Schwartz, and J. Steinberger: Properties of Heavy Unstable Particles Produced by 1.3-Bev π Mesons, Phys. Rev. 103, 1827 – Published 15 September 1956, Received 15 June 1956
9. T.D. Lee and C.N.Yang: Question of Parity Conservation in Weak Interactions Phys.Rev. 104,254 –Published 1 Octorber 1956, Received 22. June 1956.
10. T.D. Lee, R.Oehme, and C.N Yang: Remarks on Possible Noninvariance Under Time Reversal and Charged Conjugation. Phys.Rev, 106 --- Published 15, April 1957, Received 7 January 1957;
11. T.D.Lee, and C.N.Yang: Parity Nonconservation and a Two-Component Theory of the Neutrino. Phys. Rev. 105,1671—Published in 1 March, 1957, Received 10 January 1957.
12. C. S. Wu, E. Ambler, R. W. Hayward, D. D. Hoppes, and R. P. Hudson: Experimental Test of Parity Conservation in Beta Decay Phys. Rev. 105, 1413 – Published 15 February 1957 Received 15 January 1957
13. Richard L. Garwin, Leon M. Lederman, and Marcel Weinrich：Observations of the Failure of Conservation of Parity and Charge Conjugation in Meson Decays: the Magnetic Moment of the Free Muon Phys. Rev. 105, 1415 – Published 15 February 1957 ，Received 15 January 1957
14. Allan Franklin: The discovery and nondiscovery of parity nonconservation. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A, Volume 10, Issue 3, September 1979, P201-257
15. Richard P. Feynman: Surely You’re Joking, Mr. Feynman! Adventures of a Curious Character , W.W. Norton & Company, Inc, 1985.
16. R. P. Feynman and M. Gell-mann: Theory of Fermi Interaction Phys.Rev,, 109 ,193 Published 1,January 1958, Received 16 September,1957.
17. Y. K. Lee, L. W. Mo, and C. S. Wu: Experimental Test of the Conserved Vector Current Theory on the Beta Spectra of B12 and N12, Phys. Rev. Lett. 10, 253 – Published 15 March 1963,Received 4 February 1963
18. Hua Xinmin Wang Zuoyue: Li Zhengdao Yang Zhenning suffered cold treatment: 60 years ago Chinese won the Nobel Prize for the first time Science Spring and Autumn 2017.11.26https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/E4kKXPTQFS7GrDfxpV8Bqw 1/35
19. Yang Zhenning He Zuoxiu: Chinese won the Nobel Prize for the first time and was treated cold? Yang Zhenning retorted and gave supplementary materials Intellectuals 2020.12.26 http://zhishifenzi.com/depth/depth/10626.html
20. ZuoYue Wang: Dog-Shiung Wu (pp. 1207-1209)
21. Sharon Bertsch McGrayne: Nobel Prize Women in Science Their Lives, Struggles, and Momentous Discoveries ,Second Edition Joseph Henry Press, Washington,D.C. 2002
22. U.S.Postal office: Nuclear Physicist Chien-Shiung Wu to be Honored on a U.S. Postal Service Commemorative Forever Stamp https://about.usps.com/newsroom/national-releases/2021/0201ma- nuclear-physicist-chien-shiung-wu-to-be-honored-on-forever- stamp.htm）
23. CNN By Catherine E . Shoichet: She never won a Nobel Prize. But today this pioneering physicist is getting her face on a stamp February 11, 2021 https://www.cnn.com/2021/02/11/us/chien-shiung-wu-stamp-scn/index.html
24. Zhao Tianchi: "The Heavenly Language and The Tao of Things: A Commentary on Li Zhengdao", China Planning Publishing House, 2017
25. Yang Zhenning wrote: "Li Zhengdao's Biography" has many inaccuracies China Reading Daily 2010-3-22 http://news.sciencenet.cn/htmlnews/2010/3/229788.shtm
26. Xie Jinrong: Jiang Caijian wrote "The Biography of Wu Jianxiong" http://www.library.sh.cn/dzyd/spxc/list.asp?spid=239
Plate editing | Lucas