Jin Wen: The transmutation of the land system in the Qin, Han, Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties

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Shennong teaches farming

"Agriculture was the decisive sector of production throughout the ancient world". As the most important means of production in an agricultural society, the tenure system of land determines who owns it, how its products are distributed, and the relationship between people. Generally speaking, in terms of the land tenure system, the Qin, Han, Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties followed the trajectory of changing from state-owned land to private land, and then from private land to state-owned land.

1. The development of private ownership of land in the Qin and Han dynasties

Regarding the occupation of the Qin and Han dynasties, there is a well-known historical material in the Book of Han. According to Dong Zhongshu's letter, most of the people in the past believed that the Qin Dynasty abolished the well field system with the nature of rural communes and implemented the private land system of "the people have to sell and buy". However, with the excavation of the Sleeping Tiger Land Qin Jian in 1975, this mainstream view has been severely challenged. In this batch of bamboo slips, which mainly record the legal documents of the Qin State in the late Warring States period, it is clearly recorded that the Qin had a system of "granting fields". Since the granting of land comes from the state, "granting land" is said from the ruler's side, and "receiving land" is said from the peasants' side, so most scholars believe that Qin Zishang Ying's reform law implemented the land granting system of state-owned nature, and Dong Zhongshu's statement is based on the Han situation and Qin, which is not enough to rely on.

Judging from the Qin Jian in the Sleeping Tiger Land and more Qin Jian discovered later, there was indeed a large amount of state-owned land in the Qin Dynasty (state). There are also records such as "Left Gongtian" and "Right Gongtian Seal". Moreover, in the remote Qianling County (now Liye Longshan, Hunan), the land granting system was still implemented as usual until the end of the Qin Dynasty. This shows that the land grant system was widely practiced and was an indisputable basic land system during the Qin and Warring States periods. But Dong Zhongshu's statement may not be wrong.

There is one issue that has been neglected in the past. In addition to the land grant system, the Qin Zishang Dynasty also implemented the military merit knighthood system, and many military merit landlords had a considerable amount of land. Obviously, the main cultivators of the land should be the homesteaders, and most of the lowly cultivators who gave the land had to cultivate the land themselves. However, due to the disparity between the rich and the poor, there were also a small number of "rich peasants" who were soldiers (who had actually been transformed into landlords) who did not need to cultivate their own fields, just like the military landlords of the middle and high lords. Judging from the relevant literature, there are at least a few categories of people who work the fields for "rich peasants" or military landlords. The first is the "concubines" who specialize in serving the landlords of military merit. The second is the slaves and maids who plough the fields for the "rich peasants" and the landlords of military merit. The third is tenant farmers or hired peasants who work for the "rich peasants" and the landlords with military merits.

According to the research of Mr. Lin Ganquan and others, the land grant system in the Warring States period "allowed the land received to be passed on to future generations" and "was a form of transformation from feudal land state ownership to private ownership." Judging from the process of this transformation, before and after the unification of the whole country, Qin's private ownership of land should be more and more numerous. Scholars who advocate the state ownership of land in the Warring States period believe that the granting and granting of land at that time could never be bought, sold, or transferred. But the question is, according to the rules of the system of granting land and the system of granting land, those "servants", vagrants, "thieves", and even slaves and maids and apprentices originally had land grants or land grants, so why did they not cultivate their own fields but give them to others, or go into exile, or become "thieves" and slaves? Undoubtedly, this cannot be fully explained by avoiding or denying the sale and private ownership of land. Most scholars who advocate the state ownership of land in the Warring States period also admit that private ownership of land has begun to be established.

Han Cheng Qin system. In the early Han Dynasty, the land system was mainly private land, and there were many provisions on land inheritance, sale, and gift in the "Two Year Decree" of Zhangjiashan Han Jian. The most interesting thing is that in order to avoid the extinction of the household as much as possible, rather than the state taking back the farmland, the law also tried to make sure that all the farmlands and houses could be inherited, or distributed to relatives, and even sons-in-law and slaves were partially entitled to inherit under certain conditions. After that, until the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the private land system in the Han and Han dynasties was mainly private land.

The Qin and Han dynasties did not have the "ultimate right to dominion" over all land, and the private land of the "people" was not "subordinate to the state ownership of land" and was not protected by law.

2. The development of land state ownership in the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties

At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, there was a long-term war, coupled with epidemics and famines, so that "after the chaos, the people were scattered, the land was ownerless, and all were public land", and there were large tracts of wasteland in the society that could be used. In this case, in order to ensure the supply of grain, the Cao Wei group began large-scale tuntian on the basis of the Qin and Han dynasties. Later, the Shu Han and Eastern Wu regimes also followed suit and tuntian in the areas under their control. This made the state ownership of land the mainstream of the land system during the Three Kingdoms period.

During the Three Kingdoms period, there were two main categories of tuntian: mintun and juntun. Taking Cao Wei as an example, his Mintun mainly recruited poor people and organized displaced people to enter the tun, and the Diannong Zhonglang General, Diannong Lieutenant, and Diannong Lieutenant set up in various prefectures and counties presided over the tuntian. The land rent in Mintun is very heavy, usually "the official cattle holder gets six points, the common people get four points, and the private cattle and the official land are divided with the officials". Military cantonments can be divided into two forms: one is a temporary or long-term cantonment area set up for military needs, and the other is a cantonment area set up by leading generals in military garrisons. The Tuntian of Shu Han and Eastern Wu was also about the same.

Before and after the founding of the Western Jin Dynasty, it was announced that the peasant officials of Mintun would be dismissed as counties. However, the Western Jin Dynasty still attached great importance to Juntun, and the Eastern Jin Dynasty did the same. During the period of the Northern and Southern Dynasties, the various separate regimes adopted the policy of tuntian, with the military tun as the mainstay. Unlike the two Han Dynasty, where Tuntian was mostly in the border area, during the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, a large number of "middle areas" became the "frontier" areas of the northern and southern regimes, thus becoming an important area of Tuntian.

At the end of the Cao Wei Dynasty, when the Mintun system became more and more flawed, the imperial court assigned the management of Mintun to the counties, which paved the way for the implementation of the new land occupation system. After the unification of the Western Jin Dynasty, in order to mobilize the peasants' enthusiasm for production, Emperor Wu promulgated the system of occupying the fields in the first year of Taikang (280).

This kind of land occupation system is similar to the famous land system (or land grant system) stipulated in the "Two Years of Decree" in the early Han Dynasty, which is from the state ownership of land and the partial transformation of land into private ownership of land. The difference is that the land rent is levied according to the fixed area of each household (according to the number of people per household), while in the Han Dynasty, the land rent is levied according to the actual cultivated area of the household, that is, "reclamation". This shows that in the early Han Dynasty, the purpose of the famous fields or land grants was to encourage and guide land reclamation, but the land occupation in the Western Jin Dynasty used the field to force land reclamation, which had a stronger directive nature. The key lies in the fact that, according to the common understanding of the academic circles, the land occupation system stipulates that a couple should pay 70 or 50 acres of land, according to eight liters per mu, the former pay rent of 5 Hu and 6 dou, and the latter pay 4 Hu. This not only systematically guaranteed the land rent income of the imperial court, but also forced the peasants to expand the cultivated area as much as possible in order to reduce the rent rate.

From the Qin and Han dynasties to the Wei and Jin dynasties, there was no qualitative breakthrough in the development of agricultural productivity. According to relevant documents, in the middle and late Eastern Han Dynasty, the total number of cultivated fields and the average number of cultivated fields per household in the country were significantly lower than those in the late Western Han Dynasty.

Due to the war and social unrest, it is speculated that the total number of cultivated fields and the average number of cultivated fields per household in the late Eastern Han Dynasty and the Three Kingdoms period should be lower. However, the area of the fields in the Western Jin Dynasty was 1.5 or 2 times larger than the 35 mu cultivated above, which means that the eight liters per mu of the fields were not the real rent at that time.

However, there is another aspect of the field: if you want to deal with the minimum half-rent ratio with Mintun, even if the real rent of the land occupation system is higher, such as two or more buckets per mu, it is obviously much lower. According to the yield of two stones to more than six stones per mu, it is equivalent to a tax of 11 to 30 taxes. In this respect, most of the peasants in the Western Jin Dynasty were still able to bear it. This is the reason why the land occupation system can arouse the peasants' enthusiasm for production and promote the recovery and development of the agricultural economy for a period of time. Despite this, in the context of emphasizing agriculture and reducing taxes, this system was replaced by the lighter burden of "Dutian Tax Rice" in the fifth year of the Eastern Jin Dynasty (330). This is basically the same as the minimum rent of four liters per mu in the Han Dynasty. For large landlords who occupy a lot of fertile land, if the yield per mu exceeds four stones, the rent is less than the "one hundred and one tax".

After the rebellion of the Eight Kings of the Western Jin Dynasty, there was a long period of war and turmoil in the north, and the land occupation system was no longer sustainable. Under the condition that the state controlled a large amount of land, until the reform of Emperor Xiaowen of the Northern Wei Dynasty, the land was more state-owned and implemented a more state-owned land system. The core of the equalization system is to divide the land received by each household into state-owned land (open field) and private land (mulberry field), so that the main part of the state-owned land can be reclaimed and cultivated, and continue to circulate, and can also meet the needs of all sectors of society for land privatization. This form of land ownership can be roughly said to be a revision of the land grant system in the Warring States and Qin dynasties. In addition to the exemption from old age and the return to the field after death, its biggest change is also the most historically significant transformation and invention of the Juntian system, in fact, it is to break the convention, and directly stipulate that a small part of the land is privately owned by the recipient when granting the field. Although the number of privately owned mulberry fields is relatively small, it also allows small farmers to have their own private land. This will undoubtedly play a major role in easing contradictions and stimulating peasants' enthusiasm for production.

Of course, judging from the fact that "those who have a surplus have to sell their profits, and those who are insufficient have to buy what they have not enough", the Juntian system also left hidden dangers for future land annexation and its own disintegration. Generally speaking, however, the land equalization system is superior to the previous land system in dealing with class relations and promoting economic development. Therefore, after the Northern Wei Dynasty, whether it was the Eastern Wei Dynasty, the Western Wei Dynasty, the Northern Qi Dynasty, the Northern Zhou Dynasty, or the Sui Dynasty and the Tang Dynasty, they all successively implemented the Juntian system, and made a lot of improvements and perfections in the specific implementation process. In a sense, agriculture was highly developed in the Sui and Tang dynasties, and the equalization system played an important role.

3. Some conclusions and enlightenment

First of all, the transformation of the land system has its own laws, and the land system of the Qin, Han, Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties all has distinctive characteristics of the times. Whether it is the system of granting land and giving land in the Warring States and Qin dynasties, or the famous field (granting land) system in the early Han Dynasty, or the tuntian, occupying and equalizing fields in the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties periods, it is actually necessary to solve the political, economic, and military problems that we are currently facing. The Qin Dynasty's system of granting land and granting land embodied the state's policy of ploughing and warfare and laid the material foundation for the unification of the six countries; the system of granting land in the early Han Dynasty was to encourage all sectors of society to reclaim land, ensure stable financial revenues, and restore and develop the economy; the system of land occupation after Cao Wei mainly dealt with the imminent problems of grain supply and organization of production; the system of land occupation in the Western Jin Dynasty was to arouse the peasants' enthusiasm for production, let the majority of the peasants produce independently, and satisfy the requirements of the big landlords for land occupation; while the system of land sharing after the Northern Wei Dynasty was to limit the development of private ownership of large land to some extent, and at the same time to allow peasants with little or no land to acquire land through land grants, so as to revitalize the economy of the Northern Dynasties。 The formation of these land systems can be said to be in line with the times and the products of historical and social development.

Second, the development of private ownership of land in the Qin and Han dynasties could greatly mobilize the enthusiasm of landlords and peasants, but it was also the main reason for the complete destruction of the land system. The Qin Dynasty left it alone. The land system of the Han Dynasty allowed for inheritance and buying and selling, and was an out-and-out private ownership. There are countless examples of this, and it is also the economic foundation for the formation of Wenjing Zhizhi, Zhaoxuan Zhongxing, and Guangwu Zhongxing. It is no exaggeration to say that the prosperity of the Han Dynasty had a direct causal relationship with the continuous cultivation of barren land and the prosperity of the small-scale peasant economy. The normal circulation of land is an important guarantee for maintaining the economic and social reproduction of small peasants. Helplessly, the development of private ownership of land will inevitably lead to a gap between the rich and the poor, and bring about the chronic disease of land annexation. Judging from the expectations and legal provisions, regardless of the top-level design of the ruling elite in the Qin and Han dynasties or the demands of the vast number of peasants, the original intention of "the cultivator has his land" was precisely to take private ownership or possession of land as the end. However, contrary to expectations, private ownership of land has also opened the door to land annexation. In order to get out of the strange circle and solve this problem, the Han and Han dynasties adopted many measures to emphasize agriculture, such as lightly punishing the poor endowment, appeasing the exiles, lending money to the seeds, and suppressing annexation. In the case of ineffective land restriction and land control, the policy of resettlement and reclamation, fake public land or public land endowment has been repeatedly implemented. All these practices have somewhat slowed down the process of land annexation, but they have not been able to fundamentally curb the spread of land annexation. When a large number of peasants went bankrupt and large landlords and large estates generally appeared, the two Han dynasties were terminally ill and worried.

Thirdly, the development of land state ownership in the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties could organize production for a period of time and effectively ensure the supply of grain, but in the end it had to give way to more efficient private ownership of land. This is the general trend of history and social development, as Marx said: "Sovereigns are obliged at all times to obey economic conditions, and can never dictate to them." "Generally speaking, during the Qin, Han, Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, the efficiency of private ownership of land was higher than that of state ownership of land. However, in order to give full play to the efficiency of private ownership of land, there are still prerequisites for the close integration of population and land. In addition to the existence of a large amount of barren land, it is usually necessary for the peasants to have a relatively stable living and production environment. This was not the case during the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, when there was a long period of division and war, a large number of people died or fled, and most peasants could no longer organize production. This determined that forms of state ownership of land, which were directly organized and produced by the state, would prevail, such as the large-scale tuntian fields that began with Cao Wei. However, after all, the emergence of a large number of tuntian fields is a product of the wartime system, which can solve urgent needs, but it cannot last long. After the end of the war and the relative stability of society, in order to improve efficiency and arouse the peasants' enthusiasm for production, the main mode of possession of private land will inevitably gradually return to private ownership. The implementation of the land occupation system in the Western Jin Dynasty is the embodiment of this return. Even before the war ended, and the society was relatively stable, the Northern Wei Dynasty began to implement the uniform land system with an obvious form of land state-owning, and had to add some content of private land ownership. Not to mention, both before the implementation of the tuntian system and the implementation of the land grant system, there was originally a considerable amount of private private land. It can be seen that the private ownership of the land system will continue to grow after all, and it has become an irresistible trend at that time.

Finally, the land system of the Qin, Han, Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties occupies a unique and prominent historical position. The Qin and Han dynasties were the source of the great unified dynasties of ancient China, and the system of granting fields, the system of famous fields, and the system of tuntian created by them had a profound impact on later generations. From the point of view of granting land, giving land and famous land system, the Western Jin Dynasty's land occupation system has an intrinsic relationship with it; the Juntian system of the Northern Dynasty also has a certain inheritance relationship with the land granting, famous land and land occupation system, and continued to the Sui and Tang dynasties; and the tuntian system pioneered by the Qin and Han dynasties can be said to be in the same line. The changes in the land system of the Qin, Han, Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties also left many valuable experiences and lessons for future generations. The so-called "seizure of the land of the rich people and the dispossession of the landless people, the rich people will not accept it, and chaos will inevitably arise; if the land is open and sparsely populated after taking advantage of the great chaos, it can be achieved in one fell swoop." This shows the difficulty of restricting or equalizing land under the private ownership system. Only by "taking advantage of the great chaos and sparsely populated land" can we break the original pattern and redistribute the land, so that the majority of the peasants can get a small piece of land. Therefore, in order to study the economic history of ancient China, especially the history of the land system, we should attach great importance to the land system of the Qin and Han dynasties and the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties.

Source:

“

Chinese Agricultural History Official Account

”

WeChat public account

This article was originally published in:

Chinese Agricultural History, No. 3, 2021

‍

(This article only represents the author's point of view and does not represent the position of this number)

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