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Author: New City New Rain
On April 6, 1775, in the small town of Yapeyú on the Banks of the Uruguay River, a new household was moved in, by a man named Juan de San Martín. His standard Spanish speaks of his early years of living in the Iberian Peninsula. In this town, Juan Sr. served as the deputy governor of the local area as an officer. In February 1778, a new life was born in the home. Prior to this, he already had three sons and a daughter, which was his fourth son. He named the child José de San Martín (1778-1850). At that time, no one would have thought that this name would shake all of South America.
[1] Saint Martin, one of the leaders of the War of Independence in the Spanish colonies of South America. Along with Bolívar, he is hailed as the liberator of South America
Appeyou is located on the border between La Plata and Portuguese Brazil, so there are occasional conflicts with the Portuguese. As a professional officer and a local official, Juan the Elder naturally became the perfect candidate to lead the army against the Portuguese. Juan Sr. liked to tell his family about his fight against the Portuguese, which made the young Saint-Martin yearn for the army. In 1784, the family moved to Spain, and San Martin was educated at a seminary in Madrid, the capital of Spain. In September 1789, at the age of 11, Saint-Martin joined the army and served in the Regiment of Murcia, then fought against the Moors in North Africa. During this period, Saint-Martin fought bravely and seriously, and was appreciated by his commanders, and in 1794 he was promoted to lieutenant.
During the years of Saint-Martin's military service, Spain was in an eventful autumn. In 1793-1795, war broke out between Spain and France, and Saint-Martin was transferred to the Aragonese region. In 1796, Spain fell to France and went to war with Britain. Saint Martin returned to the Murcia Regiment again and followed the troops into the Spanish Mediterranean Fleet. On 14 February 1797, the Spanish Mediterranean Fleet engaged the British Navy at Cape St. Vincent. After this battle, the Spanish fleet was hit hard, and the naval strength was much weaker than before, and it lost the ability to break the British naval blockade. But for the young Saint-Martin, he was given a great opportunity to broaden his horizons and learn from his experience in maritime warfare.
In 1801, France forced Spain to join the war against Portugal. Spain's economic and military power was once again weakened, and social unrest was unstable. In 1808, french forces under Napoleon invaded Spain. During Spain's war against the French, Saint-Martin took part in a number of important battles. In July, Saint-Martin took part in the Battle of Byron in the Spanish War against France. During this battle, Saint Martin, as a liaison officer, traveled through the battlefield many times, contributing to the victory of the Spanish army, and was awarded the rank of lieutenant colonel. With such military merits, if Saint Martin remained in the Spanish army, his future military career would surely be smooth. However, he abruptly resigned and left Spain.
[2] Battle of Byron, 1808
As early as when Saint-Martin entered the Mediterranean Fleet, his forces were stationed in the port of Cadiz. At that time, he socialized with many progressive people from South America who apparently influenced Saint-Martin to fight for freedom in his homeland. He joined the South American secret society "Lautaro" (1).
[3] Saint Martin returned to South America aboard the British ship George Canning
In the second half of 1810, news of the declaration of independence in the la Plata region reached Spain. Saint Martin and the others decided to return to their homeland to join the fighting. In 1811, under the pretext of going to Peru to deal with some personal affairs, Saint Martin took a boat to South America after receiving permission to leave the army commander. But the destination is not Peru, but Buenos Aires.
In March 1812, Saint Martin and others arrived in Buenos Aires and took the lead in the Siege of Montevideo. In 1813, he successfully thwarted the invasion of Buenos Aires by the Spanish Royalists. After the failure of the Belgrano expedition to Peru, Saint-Martin led his army to meet Belgrano at Tucumán. In January 1814, he succeeded Belgrano as commander of the Northern Army.
[4] After the Battle of Tucumán, Belgrano handed over the Northern Army to Saint-Martin
Saint-Martin recognized during the long battle that victory in one or two local areas alone would not guarantee the success of the independent cause. For a complete victory, peru, must first be destroyed, the Spanish fortress in South America. He also believed that in order to achieve the goal, it was not possible to take the route of Belgrano, and not only was peru inconvenient, but the locals were also more inclined to Spain. After much deliberation, San Martin drew up a plan to cross the Andes mountains from the west of Argentina, first to liberate Chile with Chile's Patriotic Army, and then to attack Peru by sea.
To achieve this grand plan, he resigned as commander-in-chief of the Northern Army on the grounds of ill health and became the governor of cuyo province in the western Andean foothills of Argentina. In August 1814, he arrived in the city of Mendoza in the province of Cuyo. For a long time thereafter, he devoted all his energies to preparations, as he examined in detail the topography and climate of the Andes, opened an arsenal to produce cannons, rifles and uniforms suitable for mountain marching; established barracks outside Mendoza to train officers and soldiers; and Saint-Martin declared the emancipation of all slaves, which led to the participation of a large number of blacks.
[5] Map of the Battle of San Martin to Liberate Chile (painted by Zhu Yulian)
While Saint-Martin was actively preparing for the expedition to liberate Chile, the situation in Chile took a sharp turn for the worse and became very serious. The disagreement between Bernardo O'Higgins Riquelme (1778-1842), the leader of the Chilean independence movement, and José Miguel Carrera Verdugo (1785-1821) provided an opportunity for the royalists. The Governor of Peru sent General Mariano de Osorio (1777-1819) to Chile to suppress the independence movement. Although the Chilean Patriotic Army fought bravely, however, because of the leader's willful will and command mistakes, the Chilean Patriotic Army lost consecutive battles. In September, the royalists reached Rancagua, the last major city of the Patriotic Army. O'Higgins led his troops to engage the royalists at the city of Rancagua, holding their positions for nearly thirty hours with a disparity in strength and ammunition running out without backup, and the Patriots retreated in defeat. O'Higgins had to lead the remnants across the Andes to St. Martin.
[6] Bernardo O'Higgins, leader of the Chilean independence movement, was wounded several times often in battle.
St. Martin received O'Higgins warmly and invited him to join the expeditionary force. Chile was reconquered by Spain at this time, with the addition of Peru, a Spanish fortress. By this time, Spain had completed its strategic encirclement of La Plata, and Osorio was preparing his army to cross the Andes at any time to attack the province of Cuyo. Many advised Saint-Martin to abandon the expedition and instead do a good job of defending. But Saint-Martin remained adamant about his ideas, and he managed to get the support of Pueredon, who was in power. After a series of preparations, on January 18, 1817, the expeditionary force left Mendoza and officially set out.
The expedition was personally led by Saint-Martin. The total number of troops reached 5,000, including more than 2,900 infantry, 800 cavalry, 1,200 volunteers and other personnel. Of those 5,000, two-thirds were black. The expeditionary force was also equipped with 1,600 horses, 7,300 mules and 260 cannons. Obviously, it is not an easy task to get the huge weight and army to roll over the mountain range of 1300 feet of snow all year round.
The basic strategy of Saint-Martin was that after crossing the Andes, the army would pounce on Santiago and cut the Chilean royal army in two. To achieve this strategy, Saint-Martin divided his army into two armies, one led by General Juan de las Heras, with the aim of entering Chile through a shorter pass in the south and attracting the attention of the enemy. The other, led by Saint-Martin and O'Higgins, entered Chile via a longer, north-facing pass. All operations were covered by propaganda and the spread of false information by spies in front of the troops.
Saint-Martin led the expedition across the Andes Mountains and accomplished a great military feat. The spy succeeded in causing the royalists to misjudge his marching route. The two armies met at the scheduled time at st. Felipe, the scheduled meeting place. The governor of Chile, Francisco Marco del Pont, hastily assembled only 1,500 troops to fortify the Chacabuco heights.
[7] Saint Martin (left) and O'Higgins (right) cross the Andes Mountains
On 12 February 1817, the two sides formally engaged, and Saint-Martin decided to attack while the royalists were on an unstable footing. The army was divided into two routes, one under the command of O'Higgins, attacking the enemy frontally, and the other under the command of the Argentine general Miguel Soler, attacking the enemy rear from the flank. Caught between the expeditionary forces, the Royalists were defeated and Marco de Ponte was captured. Two days later, St. Martin and O'Higgins entered San Diego. As liberators, Saint Martin and O'Higgins were welcomed by the inhabitants, and the Chilean patriots elected Saint Martin as the new leader of Chile, but St. Martin humbly refused, so the people elected O'Higgins as the leader. In February 1818, on the occasion of the first anniversary of the victory at the Battle of Chakabuco, O'Higgins raised the flag of Chile to the public to declare the official independence of Chile.
At the same time, Joaquin de la Pezuela (1761-1830), the new governor of Peru, again sent General Osorio by sea into southern Chile. The local Patriotic Army, mistaken for the large number of royalists, decided to retreat, but the lack of experience of the soldiers led to confusion and was defeated by the royalists who took the opportunity to sneak in. On 19 March 1818, Saint-Martin and O'Higgins confronted the royalists at Cancha Rayada. This time the royalists were at a disadvantage in numbers and prepared to use night raid tactics. Saint-Martin commanded the transfer of the army in case of a sneak attack by the enemy. At this moment, the royal army launched an attack, and the patriotic army was suddenly in disarray. Saint-Martin fought hard, O'Higgins was wounded in the left arm, temporarily left the army, and the Patriotic Army was forced to withdraw north. But Osorio did not take advantage of the chase. Saint-Martin used this respite to regroup and led the army back to Maipu, a small town on the outskirts of Santiago.
[8] On February 18, 1818, amid cheers, O'Higgins raised the Chilean flag and declared Chilean independence
In April 1818, the two armies faced off again at Maip. There were 5,000 men on both sides, but the PTRI was newly defeated and demoralized. Shortly after the battle began, the Patriots launched an offensive, met with stubborn resistance from the Royalists, and soon the left flank of the Patriots collapsed, tilting in favor of the Royalists. To save the situation, Saint-Martin threw his reserves into battle and slowed the advance of the royalists with heavy artillery fire. At this time, O'Higgins, who had been wounded before, led reinforcements into battle, completely destroying the royalists, and Osorio fled the battlefield alone. The battle lasted six hours, with 2,000 killed and 3,000 captured, while the Patriots lost only more than 1,000 men. After this battle, the remnants of the Spanish army in Chile were annihilated, the chilean power was wiped out, and the entire territory of Chile was liberated.
[9] Saint Martin and O'Higgins after the victory at the Battle of Maup
After the liberation of Chile, Saint-Martin began the work of liberating Peru. In order to receive more assistance, San Martin returned to Buenos Aires and sent representatives to the United States to meet President James Monroe (1758-1831) to seek assistance. At this time, Pueredon, who had strongly supported the expedition, repeatedly shirked it on the grounds of financial constraints, and Saint-Martin wrote to Pueredon with fierce words. Because of Saint-Martin's reputation, Pueredon was finally obliged to offer his best to provide assistance. However, much less assistance could be provided than had been expected by Saint-Martin. Delegates to the United States were received only by Secretary of State John Quincy Adams (1767-1848), and could only buy two small warships from the United States, apparently not enough to form a fleet that could compete with the royalists. Faced with this situation, Saint-Martin had to pin his hopes on Chile.
[10] Returning to Buenos Aires, San Martin received a warm welcome in Congress
O'Higgins, who seemed unable to take on the task, took on the task very boldly and supported St. Martin's plan very firmly. Just as the citizens of Mendoza supported the liberation of Chile, Chile raised military expenses through a special tax, and the national treasury soon accumulated more than 550,000 pesos. To solve the problem of transporting the expeditionary force, O'Higgins purchased a cruiser from Britain, plus two warships captured from Spain and two warships purchased from the United States, to form the Chilean Navy. O'Higgins also hired Thomas Cochrane (1775-1860), a British naval officer, as supreme commander of the fleet. Upon his arrival, Cochrane led his fleet in a search for Spanish ships in the Pacific.
[11] Thomas Cochrane, Rear Admiral of the British Royal Navy, was known to the French as the "Wolf of the Sea".
Everything is proceeding according to the original plan. But Saint-Martin, for health reasons, had to return to Mendoza and write letters to issue orders. During this period, Buenos Aires ordered Saint Martin to withdraw the expeditionary force to suppress internal rebellions and opposition. Pueredon, who had previously been in power, had stepped down, and the differences and contradictions between the various factions within the country had not been resolved. There was even a rebellion in Tucumán, where the rebels not only relieved the governor but also arrested Belgrano. Faced with this situation, will it obey orders to command the army to suppress the opposition and quell civil unrest, or will this army be used for the cause of liberation? In his letter to O'Higgins, Saint Martin wrote: "A terrible responsibility is falling on me, but if the expedition to Peru is not carried out, then everything will be taken away by the devil." As a sign of determination, he declared to the outside world: "General Saint-Martin will never shed his blood from his countrymen, and he will always draw his sword against the enemy of the cause of independence." ”
However, Saint-Martin still hopes to exert personal prestige on the domestic opposition, hoping that they will take into account the overall situation and stop internal friction. But his efforts were either futile or ineffective. Anxiety and annoyance aggravated his condition. The general, who had been mighty before, could not even ride a horse now. Did all this crush him? No, Saint Martin had already sent his family back to Buenos Aires, and he himself had decided to travel to Chile to make final preparations for the expedition. A group of soldiers took turns carrying him over the Andes on stretchers.
In February 1820, a fleet of 24 ships and 1600 sailors was ready. In August, San Martín led more than 4,400 soldiers (1,800 Chileans, 2,310 Argentines, 330 volunteers from various countries) and various weights aboard a ship in Valparaiso for Peru. O'Higgins personally went to see him off and pointed to the four men who had finally boarded the ship and declared to everyone: "Three small boats give the Spaniards sovereignty over the New World, and they will take back this right from the Spaniards." ”
(1) Lautaro is the leader of the Chilean Indian tribe, who died in the battle against Spanish colonial aggression and is known as the "Star of the Chilean Nation". The pioneers of the Independence Movement in South America established secret revolutionary groups named after him to fight for the overthrow of colonial rule.
Resources
[1] Raymond Carr (English) History of Spain
[2] Jonathan M. C. Brown (U.S.) History of Argentina
[3] A.E. Ba Thomas(U.S.) History of Latin America
[4] Li Chunhui, Xu Shicheng, su Zhenxing, Draft History of Latin America
[5] Benjamin Jean, Keith Haynes (U.S.), History of Latin America (before 1900)
[6] John L. Rector (United States) History of Chile
[7] World History Teaching and Research Group, Department of History, Nankai University, A Brief History of the Struggle for National Liberation in Latin America