A country whose entire territory is surrounded by the territory of other countries and does not have its own coastline is called a landlocked country. There are 44 landlocked countries in the world: 12 in Asia, 14 in Europe, 16 in Africa and 2 in South America. Among these 44 landlocked countries, except for more than a dozen or so countries in Europe, such as Switzerland, Austria, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Luxembourg, Andorra, the Vatican, San Marino, and Liechtenstein, which are relatively economically developed, most of the others are not developing well. Why is it that the vast majority of landlocked countries are not doing well, and why are the landlocked countries in Europe able to break this pattern?
Landlocked countries are inherently deficient in their participation in international trade. About 71% of the Earth's surface is oceans and 29% is land. The oceans are interconnected at the surface of the earth as a whole. Even a kilometre of coastline is enough to access the ocean, and access to the ocean means reaching the doorstep of the world's 150 coastal countries. Landlocked countries don't even have an inch of coastline, so it is difficult for landlocked countries to access the ocean. Compared with coastal countries, landlocked countries have inherent shortcomings in maritime rights that are difficult to overcome.
Of course, landlocked countries can also borrow other countries' ports to go to sea for foreign trade. However, there are various fees such as shipping and port usage fees. This will not only increase the cost of goods and reduce the competitiveness of domestic goods in the international market, but also invisibly make the country subject to the constraints of other countries. Borrowing someone else's port to go to sea means that you can get stuck at any time. If you want to borrow someone else's port, in addition to spending money to do something, you may also have to meet some diplomatic demands put forward by the other side. This can lead to a passive situation in the country, both economically and politically.
In fact, the coastal areas within a country tend to have a higher level of development than the inland areas: the economically developed cities such as Shanghai, Guangzhou, and Shenzhen on the mainland are concentrated in the eastern coastal provinces, while there is a certain gap between the economic level of the inland areas in the central and western regions and the eastern coastal areas. The developed countries of Asia, such as Japan, South Korea, and Singapore, are basically island countries or coastal countries, and the economic belts in Japan and South Korea are also mainly distributed in coastal areas. In addition to Asia, Africa, the Americas, and Oceania also basically follow the law that the coastal zone is more developed than the inland zone.
There are two main areas of the most economically developed in the United States: one is the 13 states on the Atlantic coast, and the other is California and Washington on the Pacific coast. The economic level of the central interior of the United States is even worse than that of the East and West coasts. Brazil's population, large cities, and economic resources are concentrated in the southeast coastal region with Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo as the core. Australia's population is concentrated in the south-eastern and south-western coastal areas, while the Australian hinterland is an inaccessible desert. It can be seen that it is almost a worldwide law that coastal areas are more developed than inland areas.
However, there are exceptions to this rule in Europe: most of the landlocked countries of Europe, such as Austria, Switzerland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Luxembourg, Andorra, the Vatican, San Marino, and Liechtenstein, are among the developed countries. Why have Europe's landlocked countries been able to break the curse of development? This is first and foremost determined by Europe's position in the world industrial system. The first two of the three industrial revolutions in human history began in Europe and gradually spread to North America and Japan. In the third industrial revolution, the United States became the leading country, and Europe, Japan, Russia, China, and India are vigorously catching up.
Europe has either been in a leading position or catching up with the three industrial revolutions, but so far Europe has never been absent from any of them. On the other hand, the industrialization process in Asia, Africa and other places is almost the product of the stimulation of Europe and the United States. After the Meiji Restoration, Japan took the initiative to learn from the developed countries of the West and began the industrial revolution. China also tried to introduce advanced technology from developed Western countries through the Westernization Movement, but the turmoil of the late Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China prevented China from keeping up with the trend of world development, and it was not until the founding of the People's Republic of China that the industrialization transformation was completed.
As for South Korea, Singapore, and the vast majority of countries in Asia and Africa, they basically achieved independence and industrial development after World War II. The industrialization of Asian, African and Latin American countries initially originated from the import of industrial technology and capital from Europe and the United States. In the early stage, the late-developing countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America all started by producing low-price products for the developed countries of Europe and the United States. The entry of European and American technology and capital into Asian, African, and Latin American countries first began in the coastal areas. This determines that the industrial process of coastal areas such as Tokyo, Shanghai, Hong Kong, and Singapore will be ahead of the inland areas.
But Europe itself was the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution. Europe's industrial technology and capital are endogenous, rather than imported from outside as in Asia, Africa and Latin America. Therefore, in European countries, whether inland or coastal, as long as there are areas that gather talents, scientific research, labor, natural resources and other factors needed for industrialization, their industrial industries can naturally arise and develop. Birmingham and Manchester in the interior of the United Kingdom, Paris in the interior of France, and the Ruhr and Stuttgart in the interior of Germany are themselves the origins of many industrial technologies, so these regions do not necessarily have to be seabound in order to develop industries.
Europe is a relatively small continent among the seven continents of the world. The whole of Europe is about the same size as the continent. The area of the European countries of Britain, France, and Germany is only equivalent to a province on the mainland, while the area of small European countries such as the Netherlands, Belgium, and Switzerland is only equivalent to the counties and cities of the mainland. The small terrain of Europe is also far less complex than that of Asia and Africa. The plains occupy most of the whole of Europe. Such geographical characteristics determine that the land transportation links of European countries are very convenient. There are many international rivers in Europe, such as the Rhine, Danube, Elbe, and Oder.
An international river is a river that flows through several countries. The Danube, for example, connects 10 European countries along its route. More than a hundred piers were built along the Danube. The Danube, with its well-developed shipping, is the main transportation artery of the European countries along its coast. Austria, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and other landlocked European countries actually have relatively convenient water transportation conditions. Europe was also the first region in the world to give birth to modern modes of transportation such as railways and roads. As a result, Europe has been able to form a large and complete transportation network for water, land and air transportation. Cities in the interior of Central Europe, such as Switzerland and southern Germany, have even become transport hubs in Europe.
For example, Frankfurt in southern Germany is one of Europe's transportation hubs and financial centers. Almost all of Europe's logistics are transited here. As a result, the interior of Central Europe is even better positioned for economic development than some coastal cities. The existence of the European Union and the Schengen Agreement has created a huge market within Europe covering more than 400 million people. Goods, services, capital and people can move freely within the EU member states. Landlocked European countries such as Austria, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia can trade with the ports of other EU member states with relative ease.
As a result, these countries do not exist at all in the isolation of landlocked countries from international markets. Although Switzerland is not a member of the European Union, it has joined the Schengen Agreement, and since Switzerland itself is an international financial center, it is not actually as closed as the landlocked countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America. In a sense, Switzerland, Austria, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia, which are landlocked countries in Central Europe, have certain development advantages. These countries are located on the main transportation routes connecting Europe, north and south, east and west, and are close to Germany, the European economic leader. The development of these countries can therefore be backed by a huge European integration market.
European countries are generally more developed in terms of economic level and scientific and technological level. In such an environment, we can achieve good regional cooperation with neighboring countries. On the other hand, a considerable part of the energy and grain exports of Eastern European countries such as Russia and Ukraine to the Western European market need to transit through Hungary, Slovakia, the Czech Republic and other landlocked countries in Central Europe. The landlocked countries of Central Europe can benefit considerably from this transit trade. In particular, with the advancement of the Belt and Road Initiative, these landlocked countries in Central Europe have begun to form increasingly close ties with distant Asia.
Today, Hungary, the Czech Republic and Slovakia, the landlocked countries of Central Europe along the Belt and Road, are located at the intersection of many important trade routes between Europe and Asia. This highlights its strategic value in international geopolitics. In fact, the landlocked countries in Europe are mainly Switzerland, Austria, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia in Central Europe, and small countries such as Luxembourg, Andorra, Vatican, and San Marino. One might say that Serbia and North Macedonia are also landlocked countries in Europe, but the level of development of these two Balkan countries clearly does not meet the standards of developed countries.
The landlocked countries of Central Europe, Austria, Hungary, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia, were all products of the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Historically, Austria-Hungary was the world's sixth largest industrial country. Austria, Hungary, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia inherited the industrial base of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and were located at the intersection of many important trade routes between Europe and Asia, and were backed by a huge European integration market, so it is normal for these countries to develop well. Switzerland, which is also a landlocked country in Central Europe, has long been an international financial centre. Nowadays, many governments around the world, as well as some international organizations, deposit money in Swiss banks.
In addition, international organizations such as the WTO, FIFA, and the International Olympic Committee have also set up their headquarters in Switzerland. Far from being as closed off as the landlocked countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America, Switzerland has a unique role to play in international political and economic affairs. The excellent natural environment and the special location between France, Germany and Italy attract cutting-edge talents and advanced technologies from European countries to Switzerland. As a result, Switzerland has become a world-renowned centre for international research. Switzerland is the number one country in the Global Science, Technology and Innovation Index published by the World Intellectual Property Organization.
In addition, Luxembourg, Andorra, Vatican, San Marino, Liechtenstein, these small landlocked countries in Europe are also relatively developed in terms of economic level. These pocket-sized countries with relatively small populations are backed by developed European integration markets and only need to develop a few major key industries to maintain a relatively high standard of living for all their citizens. Liechtenstein, Luxembourg and the Vatican have long ranked among the top four in the world in terms of per capita GDP. San Marino's GDP per capita is usually around the top 20 in the world. Andorra's GDP per capita is usually around the top 30 in the world.