Text: Han Shi's words
Edited by Han Shi's words
Preface
During the expedition to Peru, San Martín adopted different political and military strategies, such as drawing up a continental plan, building an army, initiating a head-to-head confrontation, and creating a naval fleet in conjunction with the Chilean government, culminating in the declaration of Peruvian independence on July 28, 1821.
But why did San Martín choose to resign so soon, leaving the Peruvian government in the midst of infighting, leading to the instability of the national situation, so that Peru did not enter a normal state of development for a long time after independence.
The formation and practice of independent thought in St. Martin
The wars in Europe in the late 18th and early 19th centuries revealed the inadequacy of the Bourbon reforms, and the Spanish Empire's position was gradually declining.
Spain under Charles IV was unable to effectively administer the colonies. In this context, Creole nationalism and Inca revivalist thought emerged on the American continent, giving birth to independence movements from Spanish colonial rule, and the continent gradually alienated its suzerainty.
As one of the outstanding leaders of Latin America's independence movements, San Martín demonstrated outstanding strategic vision and leadership skills, successfully leading Argentina, Chile and Peru to independence.
His independent thinking is based on his unique personal upbringing, which has created a deep understanding of independent career and a unique leadership style.
The idea of independence in San Martín played an extremely important role in promoting the collapse of Spanish colonial rule and the process of Latin American independence.
Preparation and implementation of the military expedition to liberate Peru
In 1814, San Martín realized that Peru was the key to freedom from Spanish American colonization.
Initially he planned to attack Upper Peru with the combined forces of Chile and Argentina, but he decided to attack Peru from the western province of Cuyo after the war situation changed.
San Martín developed a continental plan for the liberation of Peru, the key of which was to defeat the Spanish royalist army in Chile from the province of Cuyo and ensure that Chile would cross the Andes and attack Peru from the sea after independence.
In the process, Admiral Cochran and Mountain Commander Arenal led a combined force, carried out a strategy of combining land and sea, and repeatedly defeated enemy forces.
As the expedition to liberate Peru deepened, more and more provinces joined the revolutionary ranks, the most important of which were Quito and Trujillo in the north, which declared independence one after another, providing great support to the cause of independence in San Martín.
San Martín's continental plan and strategy of combining land and sea provided a clear direction for the cause of liberation of Peru's independence, while the outstanding contributions of Cochrane and Arenales added strength to San Martín's military campaign.
The development of a military expedition and its initial victory
During the first phase of the Peruvian War of Independence, from August 1820 to May 1821, the expeditionary force led by San Martín adopted a combined battle plan of land and sea, successively occupied the mountainous and coastal areas of Peru, and attacked and blockaded the colonial government.
In September 1820, San Martín successfully landed in Pisco and weakened Pezzuela's control. Negotiations also took place between San Martín and Pezuela, and in the middle of the way San Martín sent the generals Juan Arenal and Tomás Cochran to attack the mountain and maritime parts respectively, successfully advancing the war of independence, and gaining the support of the people along the way, and the Indians also joined the ranks against colonial rule.
But despite the peace talks between the two sides, they eventually broke down. This period also sparked the idea of a constitutional monarchy in Sint Martin, a compromise that was later embodied in several national institutions in South America, demonstrating the influence of Sint Martin's political thought.
During the first phase, from August 1820 to May 1821, San Martín led an expeditionary force that occupied the mountains and coasts of Peru through a combination of land and sea operations, and struck a blow at the forces of the Peruvian colonial government, further blocking its control of the war.
The rapid column led by General Arenal took advantage of the mountainous terrain to propagate the anti-colonial and liberation revolution in the first mountain battle, which was welcomed by the people along the route, and the Indians also participated in the anti-colonial struggle.
Although the two sides held a peace conference, it eventually broke down.
During this time, San Martin's political thinking also began to change, and he began to consider options for the establishment of a constitutional monarchy, which also influenced the institutionalization of other countries in South America.
During the Peruvian War of Independence, in addition to the expeditionary force led by San Martín, two provinces, Guayaquil and Trujillo, declared independence.
Guayaquil, as a military hub and an important strategic location for Peru, supported the operation of San Martín, which successfully overthrew the Spanish colonial government and ignited the free will of the Peruvian people.
The uprising in the Trujillo region was led by General Bernardo Portocarrero, who demanded at the meeting that the colonial authorities be abolished and that Trujillo be declared independent.
The declarations of independence of these two provinces supported the land and sea operations of Sint Maarten and inspired people throughout South America to promote the cause of liberation in South America.
Thomas Cochrane was an admiral of the Peruvian Expeditionary Force, and his maritime operations were aimed at accelerating the liberation of South America and realizing San Martín's plan to combine land and sea.
In January 1820, he commanded four warships to intercept a Spanish merchant ship, but the plan failed.
He then took advantage of the high mood of the local population during the carnival to sneak up on the Spanish merchant ships, but the plan also failed due to foggy weather and the dispersion of the fleet.
However, Cochran did not give up, and he continued to attack the port of Callao and won their trust by communicating with the local people along the coast.
Eventually, he defeated the Spanish royalist army in the port of Callao, captured several warships, and made a significant contribution to the liberation of South America.
This victory plunged the Spanish colonial government in Peru into crisis, dampened the fighting enthusiasm of the royalist army, and made an important contribution to the liberation and independence of South America.
The Peruvian War of Independence broke out in full swing
After the Spanish crown restored the 1812 constitution and appointed liberals to form a new government, a debate between liberals and conservatism was set off in South America.
In the midst of this dispute, the Peruvian colonial government was thrown into chaos and panic, and the divide between liberals and conservatives became more and more apparent.
The liberals staged an uprising led by Russerna, overthrowing the rule of the previous governor and establishing a new colonial government guided by liberalism.
The offensive of St. Martin and his expeditionary force plunged the new colonial government into crisis. His cult of European monarchies and his attempts to establish a constitutional monarchy in Peru clashed with Peruvian democratic tendencies, causing him to lose the support of the Peruvian people. During this period, Spain sent the captain of the frigate, Manuel Abru, to Peru in the hope of resolving the Peruvian problem through a peaceful solution.
After Abreu's arrival in Peru, due to the heightened contradictions between liberals and conservatives, both San Martín and La Serna continued their military operations in an attempt to gain a greater advantage on the battlefield.
During this period, the armistice negotiations in Poncaccio played a role. The Peruvian independence delegates demanded that the royalists place the Royal Felipe Castle and Callao under the jurisdiction of the Independence Army during the armistice, and despite the reluctance of the royalists, they could not disobey the orders of the Spanish government, so they agreed to this proposal.
After the signing of the armistice, a meeting was held between San Martín and La Serna, accompanied by representatives of both sides, who proposed the idea of creating a ruling military government consisting of candidates nominated by the governor, San Martín and Peruvians, and invited the King of Spain to appoint a prince as heir to the Peruvian throne on the condition that the new monarch accepted the constitution.
The royalists were surprised and pleasantly surprised by San Martín's proposal, and the royalist leaders offered to peacefully liberate Peru and participate in the ceremonies of Peruvian independence.
Due to San Martín's idea of monarchy and his cult of European monarchies, there was division and discontent with his expeditionary force, and he lost the support of the Peruvian people and the expeditionary force.
San Martín and Rasserna did not stop their military operations during the armistice talks in Poncacho, and both sides used the opportunity to test each other's intentions and prepare for the next move.
They don't pay much attention to whether the negotiations reach an agreement, but see it as an opportunity to get to know each other.
The armistice negotiations in Poncaccio played a significant role for San Martín in confirming his enlightened and authoritarian political ideas.
After the capture of Lima, San Martín slowed down the charge and began to form a new government.
Under his leadership, a new regime was established in Peru, the Peruvian Protectorate.
As a result of his monarchical ideas and unpopular administrative measures, the prestige of Saint-Martin began to decline, and there was division and discontent in the expeditionary force.
With regard to the liberation of Lima, Racerna chose to withdraw from Lima during the Poncacho negotiations and to establish a military base and command headquarters on the island of Serra.
This left Lima's royalists in a difficult position. San Martín was the first to enter Lima on July 10, 1821, and then declared Peruvian independence on July 28, establishing the Peruvian Protectorate.
St. Martin's military operations almost came to a standstill and failed to capture the port of Callao, which allowed the royalist army to strengthen its garrison.
At the same time, San Martín remained indifferent to the actions of General Arenal and others.
Negotiations played a role throughout the liberation of Peru, but the ultimate independence was still achieved by force.
Although the Poncacho armistice negotiations were not the key to the success of San Martín in liberating Peru, they provided an opportunity for the two sides to get to know each other and set the stage for future peace talks.
The independence of Peru and the military evaluation of San Martín
In 1822 the army led by St. Martin found itself in a difficult stalemate with the royalists who had entered the Sierra region, and he almost lost the trust and support of the Creole elite.
In order to salvage the situation, San Martín met with Bolívar in Guayaquil to discuss the future of Peru's cause of independence. However, the meeting did not lead to a major breakthrough, and the two sides failed to reach an important agreement.
The deposition of Bernardo Montejagudo, San Martin's revolutionary partner and friend, took a serious toll on San Martin's reputation.
The gradual loss of his authority and prestige among the people of Lima became another problem for him.
Under these circumstances, Saint-Martin decided to resign from his post and end his leadership in the War of Independence as a loser.
San Martín as leader has not been able to maintain his position among the people of Lima and has not been able to garner more support through his meeting with Bolívar. Although he tried several ways to solve the problem, the results were not ideal.
epilogue
San Martín played an important role in the Peruvian War of Independence from 1820 to 1823. While St. Martin's conservatism and hesitation in his later years were criticized, the leadership he displayed in the South American War of Independence remained unmatched by others.