After Genghis Khan established the Mongol Khanate, he integrated and popularized the management mode of multiple cultures and characteristics, which played a great role in promoting the development of nomadic civilization and promoting the prosperity of the steppe areas.
I. The history and cultural background of the development of the Yuan Dynasty
At that time, the scene of the steppe was vividly described in the "Journey to the West" written by yelü Chucai, a famous minister of the Mongol Khanate: Outside the palace of Genghis Khan, the tent carts were like clouds, the soldiers were like rain, the cattle and horses were everywhere, the soldiers were in the sky, the fireworks were looking at each other, and the camps were endless, which was really the grandeur of eternity and unprecedented magnificence!
Agricultural production in the grassland areas was once dominated by military reclamation, and in the depths of the grasslands, the reclamation of tun tian in the northern part of the desert and the forests, Shangdu, Hangai Mountain, Krulun River, and other Guangge areas basically met the grain needs of the soldiers and horses on the grasslands, and had grain reserves.
On his way west to see Genghis Khan, the people of Shandong Province saw with their own eyes that a large area of autumn crops had been harvested in the grassland area, and people were busy harvesting crops in the fields. The Mongols also gave their own rice to Qiu Shuji for consumption on the way.
During the Yuan Dynasty, agricultural production on the grasslands developed greatly. Between 1272 and 1293 AD, Kublai Khan moved a large number of Mongol and Han soldiers and civilians to the grassland more than ten times, and distributed cattle, agricultural tools, and seeds to them; and the people close to the Han Dynasty learned to grow millet and eat japonica rice.
As a result, an economic pattern of agriculture and animal husbandry has initially formed on the grassland.
In the Yuan Dynasty, animal husbandry in grassland areas was further developed, and circle sheds were generally set up in official pastures, and the animal husbandry of herders also developed. The Yuan government stipulated that all Mongolian herdsmen who raised less than twenty horses and less than fifty sheep set up horse farms, half of which were in the grassland areas, and the horses of the Taibu Temple, the central horse management agency, "could not be counted."
In addition, the government-run handicraft industry in the grassland area also flourished after the craftsmen from all over the world moved in. In the Yuan Dynasty alone, there are six "bureaus" for the manufacture of official leather, felt tents, and harnesses, and each bureau has hundreds of craftsmen and many of them, and the division of labor is so detailed and the scale is large that previous generations of northern national regimes have not had.
On the basis of Genghis Khan's western expedition to establish the system of station chi (Mongolian, that is, post stations), its successor Wokoutai Khan developed it, planted wells on the grassland to expand the post station, renovated the road, and enabled the Yuan Dynasty to maintain close ties with the four major khanates" In total, the Yuan Dynasty set up three post roads in the steppe area, namely the Theri Trunk Road, the Mupi Road and the Napi Road, a total of 119 stations, so that the southern and northern desert, shangdu and Dadu, Hala and Lin, were closely linked.
Kublai Khan was plagued by gout in his later years, and when he died in 1294, the throne was taken by his grandson Timur, who reigned for only 13 years. In the 26 years that followed him, the throne rotated like a wind wheel, replacing eight short-lived emperors in a row.
Too fast, too short, as in previous dynastic traditions, the alternation of the old and the new rarely without conspiracies and palace changes, and now we seem that the situation should be a period of great instability. After these eight emperors, there was the eleventh emperor of the Yuan Dynasty, who was also the longest reigning since the founding of the Yuan Dynasty, a total of thirty-five years, but he was also the last emperor of the Yuan Dynasty, who fled back to Mobei when the Ming army invaded the Yuan capital Beijing, making the Yuan ruler an expelled dynasty in the process of Chinese history.
The rulers of the Yuan Dynasty also seized the central plains through a cruel and murderous policy, but the only major event that Kublai Khan's successors did not be planned by the founders of the dynasty was to restore the traditional Chinese imperial examination in 1313 AD.
From the records of historical archives, it can be verified that the Yuan Dynasty held thirteen examinations. But his aim was not to form a Chinese-style civilian organization. When the Examinations were taken, the Mongols and the Semites were in a separate subject, with different examinations, and han Chinese who had been admitted to the imperial examination could not hold important positions, and could only be awarded unimportant official positions in low-level organizations.
This is the dark period when the Han people were suppressed and ruled, and many Chinese readers were depressed and had to develop their talents to other aspects, and from the current point of view, the wisdom of cultural people can only be replaced and vented with more vigorous gushing out. The Yuan Dynasty inscription is one of them, and the Yuanqu contains both elegant sentences and daily sayings, and adds technical terms on the stage, which makes the Chinese literature at that time open up another way, and also makes the stage of Chinese culture enter a golden age.
Second, the characteristics of cultural and artistic characteristics
The art of jade manufacturing is also a turning point at this stage, an important reason is because Qiu Chuji opened a museum in Beijing Baiyunguan to teach skills, his personal relationship with Genghis Khan caused by the special status of the Yuan Dynasty rulers to be relatively tolerant of it, but also because after the end of the war, a hundred wastes to be revived, and the people's livelihood of the public on the jade refining and processing of this special industry contact, at that time is absolutely unimaginable and close, Qiu Chuji's technology open, is definitely a cost-effective measure to save people from water and fire, For more details, see my previous serialized articles on the history of the Yuan Dynasty and qiu Chu ji.
The jade of the Yuan Dynasty is based on the continuation of the Song Liao, adding the nomadic style of Yuanmeng, which is more fierce and rough, such as a piece of jade we are giving us an example today, the shape of the furnace roof was first seen in the Song, and the subject matter originated from jade pictures.
The Yuan Dynasty developed on this basis, both in terms of innovation and the legacy of Liaojin Chunshui Qiushan Jade. The function and overall image are more perfect.
The art of the Yuan Dynasty generally appeared to be very imposing, which was determined by the vast living environment of the Mongols.
The character of lotus lotus "out of the sludge without staining" and the pure white feather color of the heron and the snow are exactly the realm pursued by the literati.
The jade furnace roof continued until the Ming and Qing dynasties, and was also made, but it was too neat and gorgeous, and the ornamentation tended to be stylized and lacked the shape and spirit of Song and Yuan jade.
Third, the basic characteristics of the jade furnace roof of the Yuan Dynasty
In the Yuan Dynasty, a kind of oval cylindrical jade ornament, which was popularly known by posterity as the roof of the furnace or the cover of the button, was actually a kind of catcher. The upper end is rounded at the top, the lower end is flat and bottomed, and the decorative pattern is set on the bottom plate, and the overall shape resembles a steamed bun.
The material of jade is more mixed, mostly using green and white or gray and white jade, and pure white jade is rare. The size is generally about 5 cm, and the height is greater than the width.
This kind of jade ornament is exquisite and transparent, the level of carving is high, and the overall hollowing multi-level carving technology is adopted, that is, from the four sides of the pipe drill to the inward carving, forming an internal hollow, like a chaotic branch interlacing, but rich in layers, the details are carved with lines, only seeking similarity and not precision.
The content of the work is very extensive, and common patterns include the flower-piercing dragon, the lotus pond heron, the lotus leaf mandarin duck, the crane grabbing swan (i.e. spring water), the mountain forest deer (i.e. QiuShan), the crane deer immortal, the Kowloon and so on.
Among them, there are hidden mountain stones, trees, flowers and other plants as the background of the environment, with dragons, cranes, geese, deer, herons and other theme ornaments.
Fourth, the appreciation points of the jade furnace roof of the Yuan Dynasty
The qingyu lotus lotus heron pattern furnace roof excavated from the Tomb of Ren Clan in Qingpu, Shanghai is the most typical.
The whole is decorated with lotus leaves, lotuses, lotus flowers, reed leaves, aquatic plants, herons and so on. With two lotus leaves as the top decoration, the two leaves of aquatic grass are rolled into the lotus leaves from the outside, which appears to be well-proportioned in composition, reflecting the ecological image and natural vitality.
The lotus leaves are carved on both sides with lotus puffs, and the petals open symmetrically. The roof of the furnace is surrounded by carved reed leaves and aquatic weeds, interspersed with multi-layered facades inside and out; two pairs of herons inhabit it, leisurely and self-reliant, with different shapes, some looking up, some looking back, and some looking down. The lower part is a thin oval base with four holes for use.
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