After the outbreak of the Opium War, the Qing Dynasty, which had always regarded itself as the "Heavenly Dynasty And The Kingdom of Heaven", was in a state of decline and gradually became the target of encroachment by the Western powers.
Especially after the signing of the Treaty of Xinugu, the country was on the verge of collapse. In order to consolidate its rule, the Qing court had to seek systematic reforms in the fields of state system, military, law, commerce, and education.
That is, the implementation of the so-called "New Deal".
The "Imperial Cabinet" of the Late Qing Dynasty
Unfortunately, the Qing Dynasty's "New Deal" not only did not have its rule, but also served as a "catalyst" for The "independence" of Outer Mongolia to a certain extent.
So the question is, what exactly is the content of the "New Deal" implemented in Outer Mongolia at the end of the Qing Dynasty? I checked some information, and then I will talk to you briefly.
Outer Mongolia before the "New Deal"
Outer Mongolia is located in the distant northern Xinjiang, sparsely populated, has been continuing the traditional "water and grass migration" of the extensive nomadic livestock industry, compared with Inner Mongolia, the natural conditions are more harsh, the output value is low.
Since the entry of the Qing Dynasty, in order to protect the pastures (safeguard the interests of the local people of all walks of life) and ensure the social stability of Outer Mongolia, the Qing government once stipulated that "(Outer Mongolia) people are not allowed to build rooms and raise livestock." Therefore, until the late Qing Dynasty,
There are also only a few smaller agricultural areas in Kobdo and between Kulen and Kyakhta.
The Outer Mongol family in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Ming Dynasty
It is worth noting that
Although Outer Mongolia is extremely rich in mineral resources, there is almost no systematic mining industry.
In April 1899, the Qing government decided to cooperate with the Russian "Mongolian Gold Mining Company" in the form of "official supervision and commercial office", but due to the strong opposition of the local Mongolian princes, it had to be announced in the summer of 1900.
Outer Mongolia's transportation industry is extremely backward,
The transport of goods has always been carried by traditional camel horses, and there are almost no railways and road lines in the territory. Coupled with the barrier between the desert between Inner and Outer Mongolia, the exchange of materials and personnel between the local and inland areas is extremely inconvenient. If we want to talk about the local "scientific and technological civilization", I am afraid that there is only the zhangjiakou to Kyakhta telegraph line erected around 1898.
As for the cultural and educational undertakings of Outer Mongolia, they are even more backward and "outrageous".
For the sake of "stability" in the frontier, the Qing government not only forbade Mongolian princes to hire Han intellectuals as teachers and clerks, but also prohibited Mongolian people from learning and using the Chinese language. Thus, with the exception of some Mongol princes and lamas who knew some Mongolian, Tibetan, and Manchu, the vast majority of herders were illiterate.
Geographical disadvantage, overall economic and educational backwardness, and the "bonus" of various natural and man-made disasters have made the local people's lives very poor.
Qing Dynasty officials who went on a business trip to Outer Mongolia in the summer of 1906 once commented that "the day of the felt house is full of cattle and sheep", "the road is difficult to enter in the deserted hazel road", and "the baby is naked to the cold wind".
Mongols in the late Qing Dynasty and early Ming Dynasty
In addition, Outer Mongolia's border defense forces are also extremely weak.
The data shows that in the late 19th century, the garrison in Ulyasutai City had only "240 green battalions and 33 full battalions", similar to the Cullen garrison, with fewer garrisons in Kobdo and Kyakhta than Ulyassutai.
What's more, these armies were old-fashioned armies with backward weapons and lack of training; as for the guards at the border posts (Karen), they were all Mongol militiamen, "no more than 50 officers and men per Karen, and their Karens were so far apart that they could not communicate with each other." ”
Outer Mongolian soldiers in the late Qing Dynasty and early Ming Dynasty (suspected)
In this context, the Tsarist Forces, which had been obsessed with territorial expansion, continued to infiltrate the Outer Mongolia region.
After gaining the right to set up consulates in Kulen and trade tax exemptions, their economic penetration was even more exaggerated, "(Late 19th century) Khalkha Four Leagues, Russian merchants (people) without a flag and without trade." ”
In the ruling class of Outer Mongolia, the Tsarist Russia also implemented a policy of inciting and co-ordinating as always. For example, when Jebtsundamba VIII was a teenager, the Russian consul in Kulun often gave him various valuable gifts to make him more "pro-Russian". In addition, Tsarist Russia has continuously organized expeditions to the Outer Mongolia region to conduct underground burial expeditions in order to enhance the understanding of the local natural environment and social conditions and obtain the required intelligence.
With the completion of the Trans-Siberian Railway, Tsarist Russia not only stationed heavy troops in the Transbaikal region, but even forcibly sent troops to Kulen in 1900 on the pretext of "protecting the interests of the Russians". Although the Russian army finally "voluntarily withdrew" two years later, the guards stationed at the Cullen consulate in Russia still had a strong influence.
All in all, Outer Mongolia in the late Qing Dynasty has become a "powder keg" hanging in northern China.
Outer Mongolian monks in the late Qing Dynasty and early Ming Dynasty
II. Overview of the "New Deal" in Outer Mongolia
In the face of the dismal status quo of Mongolian society, the "enlightened" Mongol princes led by Gonsan Norbu (Gongwang) and others put forward many bright ideas for change. However, compared with these eager Inner Mongolian princes, the attitude of all classes in Outer Mongolia was quite cold (
Read more
：
An overview of the article: The Mongol princes in the storm of modern history
）。
Since the Qianlong Dynasty, the region of Outer Mongolia has been governed by three generals and ministers.
The "New Deal" in each region was mainly handled by local generals or ministers.
thereinto:
Minister of Office of Cullen
Administering the Khalkha "Eastern Second League", i.e. the Chechen Khanate and the Tushetu Khanate;
General Ulyasutai
Administers the Khalkha "Western Second League" (i.e. the Sain noyan, Zasaktu Khanate, and the Tangnu Ulyan Sea region);
Counsellor General of Kobdo
It has jurisdiction over the Dulbert Department, Minat, Zahaqin, Altai Urianghai and other places.
1) The "New Deal" in the Kobdo and Khalkha "Western Second League" regions
Frankly,
The "New Deal" implemented in these two regions has not achieved any brilliant results from beginning to end.
Let's look first at the "New Deal" in the Kobdo region.
In January 1902, Counselor General Rui Xun of Kobdo proposed "new policy measures" such as military training, reclamation of land, and animal husbandry, but with little success. By December 1903, exhausted, he had to "request the suspension (New Deal)" on the grounds that "it was difficult to raise funds, and the matters of military training and animal husbandry were discussed in advance".
If we have to talk about the "shining point" of the two-year "reform," I am afraid that the only way to do this is to rename the former "Inspection of the Russian Commercial Bureau" to the "Foreign Affairs Bureau."
After the Qing government announced the preparatory constitution (1906), the local New Deal finally progressed. In 1907, Cobdo formed horse and artillery teams and established patrol police agencies. In the spring of the following year, the authorities began to organize the establishment of schools, the development of reclamation, and the establishment of patrol teams.
Local officials in Kobdo riding horses
Look again at the Khalkha "Western Second League" region.
In December 1902, the Sino-Russian Bureau of Trade and Commerce was established in the city of UriaSutai. In June 1907, Uria Sutai Counselor Kui Shun reported to the Qing court that he had "selected the Green Battalion for the defense as patrol police, rectified the tobacco donations, and used the funds to replenish the funds."
In February 1910, the Ulya Suda general Kun Xiu reported to the Qing court on the "New Deal" plan, the main points of which were:
There is one junior normal school in Ulya Sutai City, one Manchurian primary school in each of the two leagues, and one Mongolian yang school in each banner.
The original 40 patrol police in Wucheng could not meet the needs, and it was planned to train another 20.
A smoking cessation bureau was set up in the city, and the officers and soldiers who took opium were sent to it to quit smoking, and at the same time, the merchants who carried tobacco soil were investigated and punished.
Guide local mainland businessmen to set up "Chambers of Commerce Autonomous Offices" to handle business and local public welfare affairs.
The "New Deal Consular Office" was set up, and the national treasury was requested to allocate 20,000 taels of silver per year.
However, the performance of General Uria Sudai was not approved by the regent Zaifeng at the first time.
It was only the feedback of the "approval and approval" that was obtained.
Ruins of the Ulyasutai General's Mansion (official website of Zhabu Khan Province, Mongolia)
2) The "New Deal" of the Khalkha "Eastern Second League" (Part I)
Compared with the first two regions, the New Deal of the Khalkha "Eastern Second League" is more abundant.
However, when it comes to the local new policy, it can be divided into two periods: "before and after the appointment of the three more as Minister of Cullen".
Before Sanduo took office, the progress of the New Deal of the Khalkha "Eastern Second League" was only slightly stronger than that of the first two regions.
1) Economic development
As mentioned earlier, under the opposition of the local Mongolian princes, the cooperation between the Qing government and the Russian "Mongolian Gold Mining Company" was completely terminated in the summer of 1900. However, the Tsarist Side did not leave, they not only waited in place to "wait for news", and even "secretly dug gold mines".
In 1903, the head of the "Mongolian Gold Mining Company", Kollard, made a special trip to Beijing to request the continuation of the gold mine.
At the same time, the Uria Sutai general Lian Shun and the Kulen minister Feng Kai'a jointly proposed to the Qing court to "let Kollard continue to open a gold mine", which was quickly approved. As a result, the two jointly negotiated a new "gold mining charter" and stressed that this move was "always for China".
But it wasn't long before the Tsarist side replaced the head of the "Mongolian Gold Mining Company" without authorization, and Kollad "left" and returned to Russia.
In this regard, the Qing court once put forward a "solemn protest" to the Russian side, and the gold mining project once again reached an impasse.
Cullen in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties
In 1906, Kollard returned to Outer Mongolia. The then Minister of Cullen, Yan Zhi and Kollard, reformulated the charter for mining gold. The bylaws provide:
The gold mine was coordinated by Kollard for fund-raising and management, and the Qing court appointed the Minister of Affairs of Kulun and the Minister of Deputy to "supervise the work together";
13.5% of the annual gold production goes to the central government of the Qing court, 3% to the Mongolian flag where the gold mines are located, and the rest to the Russian "Mongolian Gold Mining Company".
By 1911, there were 6 gold mines in the "Second League" and nearly 10,000 Russian and Chinese workers, which was the largest gold mining industry established by the Qing court at that time using foreign capital.
In the five years from 1906 to 1910, the gold obtained by the central government of the Qing court was converted into more than 460,000 taels of silver, and the income of the Mongolian flag where the gold mine was located was more than 100,000 taels.
It not only alleviated the financial pressure of the Qing court to a certain extent, but also benefited the local area.
Lama outside Cullen
2) Land development
At this stage of agricultural development, it has been in a state of standing still.
In March 1904, Delin, the minister of affairs in Kulen, proposed to set up a reclamation bureau to unify the management of local reclamation, but the Mongol princes of the two leagues were quite indifferent. In January 1907, Cullen's minister of affairs, Yan Zhi, went to the imperial court and believed that the local area was not suitable for farming, and that "only the construction of railways, gold mining, and coal mines has more advantages and disadvantages."
3) Education and health aspects
In September 1908, Kulun (i.e., Ulaanbaatar) established a Mongolian Yang School, enrolling 40 students to learn Manchu, Mongolian and Chinese languages. In June 1909, Cullen set up a cowpox bureau, hired a Russian doctor to vaccinate the people against cowpox and diagnose and treat other diseases, and in addition, Cullen also set up a smoking cessation office to help "addicts" quit smoking.
4) Military and transportation aspects
In July 1905, Park Suo, the minister of affairs of Cullen, began to plan the "new army" and established a 77-man patrol force to be responsible for the security of Cullen City. In 1907, the Qing court decided to continue northward to Kulun and Kyakhta after the completion of the Beijing-Zhang Railway– but this was only a plan. In 1909, Cullen had a modern post office set up by the Chinese.
A Chinese archway in Cullen
3) The "New Deal" of the Khalkha "Eastern Second League" (Part 2)
In November 1909, Cullen's minister of affairs, Yan Zhi, left his post due to illness.
At that time, the deputy governor of Naturalization City, Sanduo (1871-1940), took over as the minister of affairs of Cullen.
Sanduo is a native of the Mongolian Zhengbai Banner stationed in Hangzhou, can write poetry, is good at calligraphy, once served as the prefect of Hangzhou, and has long served in the southeast coast and Beijing, with a relatively enlightened mind.
The kulun period of Sanduo's reign was the eve of the Xinhai Revolution. He was in charge of Cullen for nearly a year and nine months, of which the New Deal was about a year and a half.
Although he did not hold office for a long time, due to his positive attitude, the new policy of the Eastern Second League showed new changes.
Sanduo (1871-1940)
Among them, the "reform" in the following aspects is very strong:
1) Military and border defense
The establishment of armaments departments and the training of the new army are the most eye-catching of the Three New Deals.
At the beginning of his term of office, the garrison of the "Second Eastern League" was a battalion of Xuanhua Horse Brigade, stationed in Kulun, Kyakhta and various gold mines, and at the same time undertook the tasks of suppressing bandits and maintaining public order, and its strength was seriously insufficient.
Therefore, soon after he took office, he recruited 105 "simple young people" in the mainland.
Set up a "patrol infantry team" to assist in the defense of Cullen.
The "Patrol Infantry Brigade" is under the command of the newly established "Battalion Office" of Cullen, which has an annual fund of 10,920 taels, local mainland merchants donate 10,000 taels of silver every year, and the official allocation of 920 taels of public funds.
Because the Xuanhua horse team was an old-style army, it was small in number and limited in combat effectiveness. Coupled with the militia nature of the "patrol infantry", the main responsibility is to maintain public order, almost no combat effectiveness. Therefore, Sanduo believes that only by establishing a "new army" can we "consolidate national defense and secure the opposite side."
Therefore, he asked the Qing court to set up the Cullen Armament Office to prepare for the training of the new army.
Soon, the Qing court appointed Tang Zaili (1880-1964), who graduated from the Japanese Non-Commissioned Officer School, as the general office of the Armament Department to assist Sanduo in organizing the new army.
Tang Zaili (1880-1964) was a native of Shanghai, Jiangsu Province
At the end of January 1911, Don arrived in Cullen.
The former battalion affairs office was abolished and merged, and the management of the former Xuanhua Battalion, the Patrol Infantry Brigade, the Eastern Second Allied Military Affairs, and the officers and men of the Station Karen were all managed by the newly established "Armament Department." In addition, Sanduo asked the Qing court to "use more than 190,000 taels of gold mining tax" that should have been paid as a military training fund, which was quickly approved.
By June 1911, the New Army of Cullen had begun to take shape.
The new army consisted of two parts, the horse brigade and the machine gun battalion, of which the horse team totaled two teams, recruited from the two leagues; the two machine gun battalions, one team recruited inland youth in Kulen, and the other recruited Suiyuan Eight Banner Soldiers.
In addition, after learning about the current situation that "Cullen belongs to the East and West Karen, and the soldiers are old and weak", he believes that the garrison "can be difficult for a long time" and that immigration is the solution once and for all. Therefore, he suggested that the officers and men of the local "New Army" should be discharged from the army and go to tuntian near Karen to garrison them.
Regrettably, due to changes in the situation in Outer Mongolia, "none of the forces of the Forces nouvelles have been trained."
The "New Army" of the Late Qing Dynasty
2) Commerce and transportation
Sando led the officials,
In West Cullen, a suitable place was found to be "set up as a market",
And local mainland traders were relocated to it. At the same time, he designated the nearby vacant land as a livestock trading market. The opening of new markets has provided no small convenience for the development of local businesses.
At the request of Sanduo, the Qing court allocated some cars to carry out transportation between Beijing and Kulun, which to a certain extent facilitated trade between Outer Mongolia and the interior. Other than that
He is also in the process of setting up the Cullen Bureau of Culture and Newspapers in Beijing.
The timely transmission of official documents between Cullen and Beijing was ensured.
3) Education and health
In order to cultivate professional translation talents,
Sanduo selected 6 students from the Kulen Mongyang Academy and sent them to the school set up by the Russian Consulate to learn Russian, and set up simple literacy schools in Kulun and Kyakhta to conduct amateur literacy education.
Other than that
He "upgraded" the discontinued cowpox bureau to a health bureau,
Establishment of a health sub-bureau in the western Cullen area,
and incorporated non-smoking offices into them,
Doctors distribute smoking cessation drugs to "addicts" to "cure smoking addiction". He also ordered the forcible closure of the "smoke rooms" in the city of Cullen, burned smoking equipment, instructed the flags of the two leagues to effectively ban opium, investigated and punished illegal merchants who smuggled opium into the country, and collected heavy taxes on them, with the aim of "totally banning smoking.".
Depart from Zhangjiakou to Kulun
4) Others
In addition, he carried out the statistics of the number of households in the Eastern Second League, the statistics of annual income and expenditure, and the trial preparation of the 1911 financial budget, the establishment of courtrooms and prosecutors' offices in Kulen and Kyakhta, and the establishment of a new type of judicial organ. In order to better handle Cullen's foreign affairs work, Sanduo opened a "Negotiation Section" at the Kulun Minister's Office Yamen, and officials sent by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs handled foreign affairs.
He also asked Shabi Yamen (in charge of Lamaist affairs) to report on the annual assessed expenditure and write-off accounts,
Strict restrictions were placed on the behavior of Lamaist monasteries in harshly suppressing the Mongol people.
Further reading:
Reading Notes: How Did Tibetan Buddhism "Change" Mongolian History?
Reading Notes: Why do modern Mongolians take the initiative to choose to "cut off" with Tibetan Buddhism?
Article Overview: How did Tibetan Buddhism "play dead" with the Yuan Dynasty?
The "White Tower" in Cullen
In general, Sando's New Deal measures in Kulen provoked hatred among the local upper class, especially the religious forces.
In July 1911, the Russian government intervened in the New Deal in Outer Mongolia through diplomatic channels. Faced with the aggressive posture of the other side, the Qing court was forced to promise Tsarist Russia to "postpone the New Deal for Outer Mongolia." In November of the same year, the Cullen Armament Service was ordered to be abolished.
Seven days later, the Jebtsundamba Group declared Outer Mongolia "independent" (Extended Reading
A review of the article: The past and present lives of Outer Mongolia's independence
After Outer Mongolia declared its "independence," officials of the Three Dynasties were escorted out of the country by Cossack cavalry and others, first to Kyakhta, then by train to Fengtian (Shenyang), and later to Tianjin, where they became "Yugong" who did not hear anything out of the window. In 1912, Sanduo came to Shenyang and was responsible for managing the Imperial Palace and the "Three Tombs outside Guanwai". During the "Manchukuo" period, he went to "Xinjing" (i.e. Changchun) and served as the president of "Electric Co., Ltd."
In 1940, Sando died in Changchun at the age of sixty-nine.
Princes of Outer Mongolia
Finally, put a "small Easter egg" related to Sanduo
- He's one
"Heavy" "Dream of the Red Chamber" lovers
It is also known in Japan
"Three Six Bridges (Three Characters Six Bridges) Edition of "Stone Record""
。 The synopsis of this version is roughly - Xiangyun and Baoyu married (without mentioning Daiyu), Baochao died in childbirth, Tan Chunyuan married a foreign domain, Miaoyu fell into the wind and dust, Wang Xifeng was hughed, Baoyu was later imprisoned, Xiaohong and Jia Yun married and visited Baoyu,
It seems to be "more in line with the essence of the original work".
How fun is the Dream of the Red Chamber?
Gossip Dream of the Red Chamber: What kind of experience will Lin Daiyu have as a girlfriend?
The Legend of the Red Chamber: Lin Daiyu pulls out the weeping willow upside down
The qing dynasty minister in Cullen was the third office of the yamen
3. Summary
Frankly speaking, the Qing court's motivation for implementing the "New Deal" was first and foremost to maintain its effective rule.
However, it is undeniable that the implementation of the "New Deal" in Outer Mongolia has objectively played a certain role in promoting the local social and economic development.
Take Sanduo's "reform"
It not only created the development of the local modern mining industry and education, but also promoted the exchanges between the Mongolian and Han peoples.
However, his "New Deal" measures inevitably increased the burden on the local Mongolian people.
For the Mongolian people, who were already poor and destitute at that time, it could be described as "a mountain of pressure". Like what:
The construction of the newly established office buildings and the barracks of the new army requires the construction of the local flags without compensation;
The equipment required for the office of the organ also needs to be provided free of charge by each flag;
The living materials of the newly added officials and soldiers still need to be purchased from the flags at prices set by the officials.
Old photos of Outer Mongolia
In addition, these new policy measures caused strong dissatisfaction among the local upper echelons.
They believe that if the "New Deal" in Outer Mongolia continues to be implemented, their political and economic interests will be seriously damaged. Of course, for "independence", the turmoil in the political situation of the Qing Dynasty was far more influential than the "New Deal".
However, it is undeniable that the reform measures such as reclamation and military training carried out by the "New Deal" have played a considerable "catalytic role" in its tendency to seek independence.