The Japanese quietly dismantled a Chinese god car, and after dismantling it, they were a little panicked

Editor's Note: I am a maker, good evening friends

Today I share a very interesting article. The Japanese were curious about why Wuling Hiromitsu was selling so cheaply, so they dismantled it to find out.

Source/Zhengjieclub (ID: zhengjieclub)

Author/Positive Solution

Who are the big winners in China's electric vehicle market? Many people may be surprised. If you look at the sales volume, it turns out to be "Hongguang Mini EV". From January to November this year, the Hongguang Mini EV sold a total of 370,000 units.

In contrast, the famous and highly popular Tesla Model 3 sales are less than 230,000, even counting the more than 150,000 Model Y units, Tesla has barely won the Hongguang Mini EV.

Hongguang Mini EV was launched in July last year, if you count from that time, Hongguang Mini EV sales are 497,000 units, Tesla Model 3 + Model Y, a total of only 410,000 units. Such a huge sales volume also makes the Hongguang Mini EV have the title of "National God Car".

Why is the Hongguang Mini EV so powerful?

The Japanese are also curious. Therefore, Masayoshi Yamamoto, a professor at the Department of Materials at Nagoya University in Japan, led someone to dismantle a Hongguang Mini EV. The dismantling site attracted more than 100 people to watch, and the famous Japanese financial media "Nikkei Shimbun" also reported it. This does not dismantle do not know, a dismantling of a shock.

It should be known that Japanese auto giants such as Toyota have long begun to lay out electric vehicles, but they are lagging behind in commercial use. For example, Toyota has specially built a pure electric mini car C+pod, but the price is as high as 1.7 million yen (converted to more than 90,000 yuan). But the cheapest model of a Hongguang Mini EV is only 28,088, which is less than 1/3 of the Toyota C+pod.

The Japanese bought a high-end version of the Hongguang Mini EV, and the price was only 38,000.

Masayoshi Yamamoto retweeted news reports on social networking sites dismantling the Hongguang Mini EV

So cheap, the Japanese media has long been concerned about the Hongguang Mini EV. The Hongguang Mini EV even has a special name in Japan: the 450,000 yen electric car. On the online platform, various Japanese assessment videos also appear continuously.

A screenshot of a review video

So, Why is the Macromisen MINI EV that Masayoshi Yamamoto was first interested in so cheap?

The dismantled Hongguang Mini EV looks simple, but when it is taken down, it makes auto experts exclaim: many designs are subversive! For example, general electric vehicles will be equipped with regenerative brakes, which can better extend the range. However, the Hongguang Mini EV did not want this thing, and some related electronic devices were also simplified. In this case, the cost was reduced from 60,000 yen to 16,000 yen. For example, the Hongguang Mini EV motor cooling method is not commonly used water cooling, but the use of air cooling, which can also reduce costs.

Of course, these practices of the Macro Mini EV also have drawbacks. For example, the mileage is about 170 kilometers at most; the life of the inverter is about 8 years and 120,000 kilometers, which is shorter than the 20 years and 200,000 kilometers of general electric vehicles.

But what do you think about this? It can only be said that the Hongguang Mini EV understands the market better. Why? Because, this is related to the positioning of electric micro-cars, its positioning is to run short distances, you give it some high configuration, in fact, it is a waste.

A Japanese electric vehicle website introduces the parameters related to the Hongguang Mini EV

The Macro Mini EV looks more likely to go bad. However, the Macro Mini EV circumvents this problem well: it uses a design that replaces the entire module and is easier to repair. Therefore, the Nikkei Shimbun concluded that the Hongguang Mini EV achieved an astonishingly low price with the streamlined design idea of "easy to damage, but easy to repair".

Professor Masayoshi Yamamoto took someone to dismantle it, and it was calculated that the cost of this high-end version of the Hongguang Mini EV was 480,000 yen (about less than 27,000 yuan). That is to say, the profit of this high-end version of the Hongguang Mini EV is about 3.88-2.7 = 11,800 yuan.

By the way, actually, the Profit of the Mini EV may not be that high. Previously, some professional media calculated that a 28,800 Hongguang Mini EV had a profit of only 89 yuan! But don't worry about the god car not making money. Because the Hongguang Mini EV is an electric vehicle, it can sell "carbon emission credits" to other car manufacturers for profit.

Of course, Made in China is inexpensive, which is not the biggest shock to Japanese experts. After dismantling the Hongguang Mini EV, Japanese experts found a big problem: the whole car did not have Japanese-made parts. For example, the most valuable battery is the Ningde era, the motor is Ningbo Shuanglin, and the capacitor is Hunan Aihua. The main components are monopolized by Chinese enterprises.

Of course, there are also European and American products. Inverters, chargers and other electronic components, the United States Texas Instruments (TI), Germany's Infineon Technology production, but not a special car chip, but a chip for general home appliances. Simply put, this cake is completely japanese.

The Hongguang Mini EV, parked at Nagoya University, attracted a lot of attention

However, what makes the Japanese people feel more at risk is that small pure electric vehicles like the Hongguang Mini EV are likely to become an important trend in the global automotive market. For example, The Latvian automaker Dartz took the initiative to talk about cooperation in April this year, adding some functions to the Hongguang Mini EV and introducing it to Latvia, planning to sell about 70,000 yuan.

However, Japan's Toyota, Honda, Mitsubishi and other auto giants are only staring at the regular pure electric vehicle market and are still indifferent. The trillion-dollar market may really be out of touch with Japan.

-END-

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Source/Zhengjieclub(ID:zhengjieclub); Author/Zhengjiecle.

Non-directional two-dimensional tight manifolds, while spherical or tyre surfaces are two-dimensional tight manifolds that can be oriented by Klein bottles Klein bottles. If you look at the Klein bottle, one thing seems confusing - the neck of the Klein bottle and the bottle body are intersected, in other words, some points on the neck and some points on the bottle wall occupy the same position in three-dimensional space. We can understand the Klein bottle in four dimensions: the Klein bottle is a surface that can only be truly expressed in four dimensions. If we must express it in the three-dimensional space in which we live, we have to point it out and present it as if we were intersecting with ourselves. The neck of Klein's bottle passes through the fourth dimensional space and is connected to the bottom ring of the bottle, and does not pass through the bottle wall. Using the analogy of a kink, if it is regarded as a curve on a plane, then it seems to intersect itself, and at first glance it seems to be broken into three sections. But it's easy to understand that this figure is actually a curve in three-dimensional space. It does not intersect with itself, but is a continuous curve. A curve on a plane naturally can't do this, but if there is a third dimension, it can pass through the third dimension to avoid intersecting itself. It's just that when we want to paint it on a two-dimensional plane, we have to just draw it a little bit and paint it as if it were intersecting or broken. The same goes for Klein bottles, which we can understand as a surface in four dimensions. In our three-dimensional space, even the most skilled craftsmen have to make it look like they intersect themselves; just as the most brilliant painters have to draw kinks on paper as if they were intersecting themselves. Interestingly, if you cut the Klein bottle along its symmetrical line, you get two Mobius rings. A rope that seems to pass through itself in two dimensions If the Möbius belt can perfectly present a "one-dimensional infinitely expandable spatial model in two-dimensional space", the Klein bottle can only be used as a reference for presenting a "two-dimensional infinitely expandable space model in three-dimensional space". Because in the process of making the Möbius belt, we have to flip the paper tape 180 ° and then connect it end to end, which is an operation in a three-dimensional space. The ideal "two-dimensional infinitely expandable spatial model in three-dimensional space" should be a model in a two-dimensional plane where you can return to the origin in any direction, while the Klein bottle can advance infinitely in any direction on the two-dimensional surface. But only in two specific directions will you return to the origin, and only in one of the directions, before returning to the origin, you will pass through a "reverse origin", and the real ideal "two-dimensional infinitely expandable spatial model in three-dimensional space" should also be moving in any direction on the two-dimensional surface, and will first pass through the "reverse origin" and then return to the origin. To make this model, it is necessary to distort the three-dimensional model in four-dimensional space. There is an important branch of mathematics called "topology", which mainly studies some of the characteristics and laws of geometry when it changes shape continuously, and the Klein bottle and the Möbius belt become one of the most interesting problems in topology. The concept of the Möbius belt was widely used in architecture, art, and industrial production. Klein bottles in three-dimensional space Definitions of topology Edit Klein bottles are defined as square regions [0,1]×[0,1] modulus equivalence relations (0,y)~(1,y), 0≤y≤1 and (x,0)~(1-x,1), 0≤x≤1. Similar to the Mobius Band, Klein bottles are not orientable. But mobius belts can be embedded, while Klein bottles can only be embedded in four-dimensional (or higher) spaces. The Möbius Belt Editor twists a section of a paper strip 180° and glues it to the other end to get a model of the Möbius strip. It's also a surface with only a Möbius band and one face, but unlike spherical, tyre, and Klein bottles, it has edges (note that it has only one edge). If we glue the two Möbius bands along their only side, you get a Klein bottle Möbius strip (of course, don't forget that we have to be in four dimensions to really be able to do this bonding, otherwise we have to tear the paper a little). Similarly, if we cut a Klein bottle properly, we get two Möbius strips. In addition to the appearance of the Klein bottle we saw above, there is also a lesser-known "figure 8" Klein bottle. It looks completely different from the surface above, but in four dimensions they are actually the same surface- Klein bottle. In fact, it can be said that the Klein bottle is a 3° Möbius belt. We know that if you draw a circle on a flat surface and put something inside the circle, if you take it out in the second dimension, you have to cross the circumference. But in three-dimensional space, it's easy to take it out and put it outside the circle without crossing the circumference. Projecting the trajectory of an object into two-dimensional space along with its original circle is a "two-dimensional Klein bottle", the Möbius belt (the Möbius belt here refers to the Möbius belt in the topological sense). Imagine that in our 3° space, it is impossible to remove the yolk from the egg without breaking the shell, but in the fourth degree of space it is possible. Projecting the trajectory of the yolk along with the eggshell in three degrees of space, a Klein bottle must be visible. In the past, the German mathematician Klein proposed the "impossible" idea, that is, the big monster of topology - Klein bottle. This kind of bottle has no distinction between inside and outside, no matter where it penetrates the surface from, the place of arrival is still outside the bottle, so it is essentially a strange thing with "outside and no inside". Although the modern glass industry has developed very advanced, the so-called "Klein bottle" has always been a "fiction" in the mind of the great mathematician Mr. Klein, and it cannot be manufactured at all. Mathematicians in many countries have always wanted to make it out as a gift to the International Congress of Mathematicians. However, what awaits them is one failure after another. Some people also think that even if glass products cannot be made, it is not bad to make a paper model. If this problem is really solved, it will be a big gain! The latest research suggests that the diameter of the universe can be 92 billion light-years, or even larger. [28] The current observable age of the universe is approximately 13.82 billion years. [29] Shape The temperature of the cosmic microwave background is high at one end, suggesting a curved nature The temperature of the cosmic microwave background is high at one end, suggesting a curved shape [30] Current cosmological theories suggest that the universe may be a saddle-like negative curved shape, which stems from the Big Bang theory, in which the entire universe is shaped like a blown balloon and we live on the "surface" of the universe. [31] At the same time, scientists also believe that the universe is flat, according to NASA, the universe may be flat, and a 2013 survey found that if the universe were flat, the error was only 0.4%. [32] Stephen Hawking stated that the shape of our universe could be an incredible geometric shape that is closer to surreal art, as is the case with Dutch artist Moritz Cornelis Escher's creation of the Milky Way Galaxy [33]. Hawking's ideas are based on string theory, which is still hypothetical and has not been tested. If the shape of the universe is to be described in words, it should be the overall multi-mosaic pattern, with infinitely repeated distorted surfaces, interlocking between the surfaces, like the "Circular Limit IV" pattern created by Cornelis Escher, and also with the American engineer P.H. Smith's "Smith Circle Diagram" is similar, embodying the concept of hyperbolic space, which is a non-Euclidean geometric spatial form. [34] Hierarchy Contemporary astronomical research suggests that the universe is a hierarchical, ever-moving celestial system in which two galaxies, NGC 470 and NGC 474, are about to collide, and the two galaxies NGC 470 and NGC 474 [35] are about to collide. Planets, asteroids, comets, and meteoroids all orbit the central celestial body, the Sun, making up the solar system. There are other planetary systems outside the solar system. About 250 billion Sun-like stars and interstellar matter make up the even larger celestial system, the Milky Way. The Milky Way is about 100,000 light-years in diameter, and the Sun is located in one of the Milky Way's spiral arms, about 26,000 light-years from the galactic center. There are many similar celestial systems outside the Milky Way, called extragalactic galaxies, often referred to simply as galaxies. With 100 billion galaxies currently observed, scientists estimate that there are at least 2 trillion galaxies in the universe. Galaxies are clustered into large and small groups called galaxy clusters. On average, each galaxy cluster has about a hundred galaxies, with a diameter of tens of millions of light-years. Tens of thousands of galaxy clusters have been discovered. A small cluster of about 40 galaxies, including the Milky Way, is called the Local Group of Galaxies. Jets triggered by the elliptical galaxy Hercules A center super black hole The jet caused by the elliptical galaxy Hercules A center super black hole [36] Several galaxy clusters gather together to form a higher-level celestial system called the supercluster. Superclusters tend to have a flattened, elongated appearance with a diameter of up to hundreds of millions of light-years. Usually superclusters contain only a few clusters, and only a few superclusters have dozens of clusters. The supercluster of the Local Group and about 50 clusters in its vicinity is called the Local Supercluster. Galaxy classification According to the sequence number that reflects the state of galaxy development, galaxies are classified, and galaxies can be roughly divided into five types: elliptical galaxies, lens galaxies, spiral galaxies, barred spiral galaxies and irregular galaxies. [37] Solar System Objects The solar mass accounts for 99.86% of the total mass of the solar system, and it uses its strong gravitational pull to photographs of solar storms published by NASA [38] All the celestial bodies in the solar system are firmly attracted to it, making them rotate around themselves in an orderly and orderly manner. At the same time, the Sun, as an ordinary star, leads its members in an endless motion around the center of the Milky Way. [39] The Sun has a radius of 696,000 km, a mass of 1.989 × 10^30 kg, and a central temperature of about 15,000,000 °C. [40] If a person stands on the surface of the Sun, he will weigh 20 times as much as he does on Earth. [41] Based on observational data and theoretical calculations, the modern nebula hypothesis proposes that the primordial nebula of the Solar System is a small cloud in which the huge interstellar cloud disintegrates, rotates at the beginning, and contracts under its own gravitational force, the central part forms the sun, the outer part evolves into a nebula disk, and the nebula disk later forms a planet. At present, there are different schools of modern nebula theory, and there are still many differences between these schools, which need to be further studied and confirmed. [42] Venus is the second planet to leave the Sun, and its night sky is second only to that of the Moon. [43] Venus has no water, there is a severe lack of oxygen in the atmosphere, carbon dioxide accounts for more than 97%, there is a thick sulfuric acid cloud in the air that is 20 km to 30 km thick, and the ground temperature is not less than 400 °C, which is a veritable "purgatory" world. The atmospheric pressure on the ground of Venus is 90 times that of Earth, which is equivalent to the pressure at a depth of 900 meters in Earth's oceans. Venus's atmosphere is mainly composed of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, and the runaway greenhouse effect is the main cause of Venus's extreme climate. Since Venus does not have the protection of the inner magnetosphere, the huge energy released by the magnetic field reconnection in the magnetosphere is induced, so that the atmosphere of Venus is heated and accelerated to escape. The scientific community believes that the escape of the atmosphere on Venus is the cause of the lack of water on Venus and the dense atmosphere rich in carbon dioxide, resulting in a severe greenhouse effect. [44] Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun, and the largest, than all other planets Jupiter and its moon Europa (Europa) Jupiter and its moon Europa (Europa)[45] have a mass twice (318 times that of Earth) and a diameter of 142,987 km. It is a gaseous planet without a solid surface, consisting of 90% hydrogen and 10% helium (ratio of atoms, 75/25% mass ratio) and trace amounts of methane, water, ammonia and "stones". This is very similar to the composition of the primordial solar system nebula that formed the entire solar system. Jupiter may have a stony core, equivalent to 10-15 Earth masses. At the core is a concentration of most of the planetary material, in the form of liquid hydrogen. Liquid metallic hydrogen consists of ionized protons and electrons (similar to the interior of the Sun, but at much lower temperatures). Jupiter has a total of 67 Ganymede. In order of proximity and distance from the center of Jupiter: Ganymede sixteen, Ganymede XIV, Ganymede V, Ganymede fifteen, Ganymede, Ganymede, Ganymede, [46] Mercury is the closest planet to the Sun. Mercury has a radius of about 2440 km, the smallest of the eight planets. Mercury has a huge temperature difference between day and night, with 430 degrees Celsius during the day and about -170 degrees Celsius at night, making it the planet with the largest temperature difference among the eight planets in the Solar System. [47] Mercury's outer atmosphere is very thin , made up of atoms and ions on Mercury 's surface and in the solar wind. [48] Scientists confirm that Mercury's surface is rich in carbon, believing that carbon is responsible for the blackness of Mercury's surface, and that the rocks on Mercury's surface are made up of a low percentage of graphite carbon. [49] Curiosity rover collects samples from the surface of Mars [50] Mars is a close neighbor of The Earth and the fourth planet in the Solar System from the inside out. It has a diameter of 6794 km, a volume of 15% of the Earth, and a mass of 11% of the Earth. The surface of Mars is a desolate world, with 95% carbon dioxide in the air. The Martian atmosphere is so thin that it is less than 1% denser than Earth's atmosphere, so it is impossible to conserve heat at all. This results in extremely low surface temperatures on Mars, rarely exceeding 0°C, and at night, the lowest temperatures can reach -123°C. Mars is called a red planet because its surface is covered with oxides, giving it a rusty red color. Much of its surface is a large desert with large amounts of red oxide, as well as ochre gravel fields and solidified lava flows. There are often fierce winds on Mars, and high winds can raise dust to form very large dust storms that can cover the entire martian world. Each dust storm can last for several weeks. The ice caps at the poles of Mars and the Martian atmosphere contain water. Exploration data obtained from the surface of Mars prove that in ancient times, Mars once had liquid water, and the amount of water was particularly large. [51] Saturn is the sixth planet to the Sun, with a diameter of 120,536 km, second only to Jupiter in size. Composed mainly of hydrogen, there are also small amounts of helium and trace elements, the inner core includes rock and ice, and the outer periphery is surrounded by several layers of metallic hydrogen and gas. Earth is 1.3 billion kilometers away from Saturn. Saturn's gravitational pull is 2.5 times stronger than Earth's, and it can pull other planets in the solar system, keeping the Earth in an elliptical orbit and maintaining an appropriate distance from the Sun for life to reproduce. Tilting Saturn's orbit by 20 degrees would bring Earth's orbit closer to the Sun than Venus's, and at the same time, this would cause Mars to leave the solar system entirely. [52] Saturn is the only planet known to be less dense than water, and if saturn could be placed in a huge bath, it would be able to float. Saturn has a huge magnetic atmosphere and a fiercely windy atmosphere, with winds near the equator reaching speeds of up to 1800 km/h. Of the 31 moons orbiting Saturn, Titan is the largest, larger than Mercury and the Moon, and the only moon in the solar system with a thick atmosphere. [53] Uranus is the seventh planet to the Sun, 51,118 km. It is about 65 times the size of Earth, second only to Jupiter and Saturn among the nine planets. Uranus' atmosphere is 83% hydrogen, 15% helium, 2% methane, and small amounts of acetylene and hydrocarbons. The methane in the upper atmosphere absorbs red light, giving Uranus a bluish-green color. Atmospheres congregate into clouds at fixed latitudes, similar to the bright striped ribbons of Jupiter and Saturn on their parallels. The average temperature in Uranus's clouds is minus 193 degrees Celsius. The mass is 8.6810±13×10 kg, which is equivalent to 14.63 times the mass of the Earth. The density is small, only 1.24 g/cm3, which is 74.7% of the density value of Neptune. [54] The star Star Neptune is the eighth planet to be away from the Sun, with a diameter of 49,532 km. Neptune orbits the Sun with a radius of 4.5 billion kilometers and an orbit of 165 years. Neptune is similar in diameter to Uranus and slightly more massive than Uranus. Neptune and Uranus have hydrogen and helium, and their internal structures are very similar, so Neptune and Uranus are twin brothers. [55] Neptune has the strongest winds in the solar system, measuring speeds of up to 2,100 km/h. The temperature at Neptune's cloud top is -218 °C, one of the coldest regions of the solar system. The temperature of Neptune's core is about 7000 °C, which can be compared with the surface of the Sun. Discovered on September 23, 1846, Neptune is the only planet to have been discovered using mathematical predictions rather than planned observations. [56] Pluto, located in the inner Kuiper Belt outside Neptune, is the largest known object in the Kuiper Belt. [57] The diameter is approximately 2370±20 km, which is 18.5% of the diameter of the Earth. [58] On August 24, 2006, the General Assembly of the International Astronomical Union voted on the 24th to no longer consider Pluto, one of the traditional nine planets, to be considered a planet, but to be included as a "dwarf planet". The resolution adopted by the General Assembly stipulates that "planet" refers to a celestial body orbiting the Sun whose gravitational pull is sufficient to overcome its rigid physical strength to make the celestial body spherical and capable of clearing other objects near its orbit. Of the solar system's traditional "nine planets," only Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune meet these requirements. Pluto is automatically downgraded to "dwarf planet" because its orbit intersects neptune's orbit and does not meet the new definition of planet. [59] Pluto 's surface temperature ranges from -238 to -228°C. Pluto's composition is a mixture of 70% rock and 30% ice water. The shiny part of the surface may be covered with some solid nitrogen and a small amount Satellite photographs of the Moon passing through the Earth, visible on the far side of the Moon Satellite photographs of the Moon passing through the Earth, visible solid methane and carbon monoxide on the far side of the Moon [60], and the dark part of Pluto's surface may be some basic organic matter or photochemical reactions triggered by cosmic rays. Pluto 's atmosphere consists mainly of nitrogen and small amounts of carbon monoxide and methane. The atmosphere is extremely thin, and the ground pressure is only a small amount of micropa. [61] Earth is the third planet from the Sun and is our home planet, and although Earth is an ordinary planet in the solar system, it is unique in many ways. For example, it is the only planet in the solar system that is mostly covered by water, and the only planet known to have life. Mass M = 5.9742 × 10^24 kg, surface temperature: t = - 30 ~ +45. [62] British researchers report in the journal Astrobiology that there are still about 1.75 billion years left for earth to be habitable without events that could drastically alter the environment, such as asteroid impacts, although human-caused climate change could shorten this time. [63] Comets are small bodies in the Solar System made up of dust and ice that orbit the Sun. [64] Scientists used probes to analyze the comet's chemical remnants and found that its main components were ammonia, methane, hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen cyanide, and formaldehyde. The scientists concluded that the comet's smell smelled like a combination of rotten eggs, horse urine, alcohol and bitter almonds. [65-66] Comet 67P/Chulyumov-Grahimenk Comet [67] also has a large "Oort cloud" around the solar system. The nebula is dotted with countless pieces of ice, snow, and gravel. Some of them are influenced by the Sun's gravitational pull to fly into the inner solar system, which is called a comet. These ice, snow clumps, and rubble enter the interior of the solar system, and their surface begins to evaporate as it is blown by the solar wind. So comets all drag a long tail, and the closer they get to the sun, the longer and more pronounced they become. The interstellar space within the solar system is not a vacuum, but is filled with particles, rays, gas, and dust. [68] The Kuiper Belt is a theory that a short-period comet is a band of rings from 50–500 AU from the Sun, at the end of the Solar System. The Kuiper Belt is a giant ring of icy debris located beyond the orbit of Neptune, orbiting the outer edge of the solar system. [69] Material diversity Red giants, when a star passes its long prime, the main sequence star stage, will first become a red giant star as it enters old age. Calling it a "superstar" is to highlight its enormous size. During the giant phase, the volume of the star will expand to a billion times. It is called a "red" giant because as the star expands rapidly, its outer surface is getting farther and farther away from the center, so the temperature will decrease and the light emitted will become more and more reddish. However, although the temperature has decreased a little, the size of the red giant star is so large that its luminosity has become very large and extremely bright. Once a red giant is formed, it heads towards the next stage of the star, a white dwarf. [70] A white dwarf is a low-luminosity, high-density, high-temperature star. Because of its white color and relatively small size, it is named a white dwarf. Hubble observed the death of white dwarfs Hubble observed the death of white dwarfs [71] White dwarfs are very special objects, which are small in size and low in brightness, but have large masses and extremely high densities. White dwarfs are the end of the evolutionary route of low- and medium-mass stars. At the end of the red giant phase , the center of the star stops producing energy due to insufficient temperature, pressure, or nuclear fusion to the iron stage. The gravity of the star's crust compresses the star to produce a high-density object. A typical stable independent white dwarf has about half a solar mass, slightly larger than Earth. This density is second only to neutron stars and quark stars. If the mass of a white dwarf exceeds 1.4 times the mass of the Sun, then the charge repulsion between the nuclei is not enough to resist gravity, and the electrons are pressed into the nucleus to form a neutron star. Atoms are made up of nuclei and electrons, and the vast majority of the mass of atoms is concentrated on the nucleus, and under great pressure, the electrons will break away from the nucleus and become free electrons. This free electron gas will occupy as much of the gap between the nuclei as possible, so that the material contained in the unit space will also be greatly increased and the density will be greatly increased. Figuratively speaking, the nucleus is "immersed" in the electron, often referred to as the "degenerate state". [72] Most stellar cores are burned by hydrogen fusion, which converts mass into energy and produces light and heat, and when the hydrogen fuel inside the star is consumed, it begins to undergo helium fusion reactions and forms heavier carbon and oxygen, a process that is relatively short for stars like the Sun and forms a white dwarf of carbon and oxygen, and if its mass is greater than 1.4 times the mass of the Sun, a Type Ia supernova explosion occurs. [73] Quasars, since the 1960s, astronomers have also found a celestial body that behaves like a star outside the Milky Way as a point of light, but in fact its luminosity and mass are the same as galaxies, we call it quasars, and thousands of such objects have now been discovered. [74] Supernovae are a phase in the evolution of stars. A supernova explosion is a violent explosion that some stars experience as they evolve towards the end of their lives. Stars with masses less than 9 times the mass of the Sun are generally thought to be unable to form supernovae after undergoing a process of gravitational collapse. [75] In the late evolution of massive stars, no new energy can be generated inside, and the huge gravitational force will rapidly collapse the entire star to the center, pressing the central material into a neutron state, forming a neutron star, while the outer substructure of the collapsing material encounters this hard "neutron nucleus" bouncing back and causing an explosion. This becomes a supernova explosion, and when the mass is greater, the center is more likely to form a black hole. [76] The energy released during a supernova explosion would require our sun to burn 90 billion years to match that. [77] The study of supernovae has deep implications for the fate of humanity itself. If a supernova erupts very close to Earth, it is now widely believed in the international astronomical community that within 100 light-years, it can have a significant impact on Earth's biosphere, and such a supernova is called a near-Earth supernova. Some studies believe that the Ordovician mass extinction in the history of the Earth was caused by a near-Earth supernova, which caused nearly 60% of the marine life on the earth to disappear at that time. [78] The universal model of the heliocentric theory, which is generally considered to be complete, was proposed by the Polish astromist Copernicus in his Treatise on the Motion of The Celestial Bodies in 1543, and in fact Aristacus and Herakrit had mentioned in the West more than 300 years BC that the sun was the center of the universe and that the earth revolved around the sun. The fact that the solid earth was in motion was very difficult to accept in ancient times, and the ancient people lacked sufficient observational data of the universe and the concept of human beings to mislead the earth as the center of the universe. And Ptolemy's system of geocentrism coincided well with the observational data of the time, so that geocentrism was widely accepted by the public and considered by the Holy See at that time to be part of the sacrosanct truth. So in the more than half a century since the publication of The Theory of Celestial Motion, heliocentrism still received little attention and very few supporters. The most famous of these supporters is Giordano Bruno. Bruno was associated with the "heretics" throughout his life, and was displaced by it, and was eventually burned to death in the Place de' Fiori by the Inquisition. He supported copernican heliocentrism and developed the "infinite theory of the universe", which in his time became a figure on the cusp of the storm, and as a result, he was often regarded as a pioneer of the rise of modern science, a martyr who defended the truth of science and dedicated his life to it. Another theory is that the struggle between the geocentric theory of the Vatican in Rome and the heliocentric theory of Copernicus in modern times has been grossly exaggerated. Bruno was burned at the stake in 1600 not because of his support for heliocentrism, but because of his pantheism, polytheism, and other religious ideas that annoyed religion. In any case, bruno did play a role in promoting the spread of heliocentric theory. In fact, it was not until 1609, when Galileo Galileo used astronomical telescopes to discover new astronomical phenomena that were detrimental to the old Aristotle cosmology and Ptolemaic system, which in turn could support the heliocentric theory, that the heliocentric theory began to attract attention. These astronomical phenomena mainly refer to the fact that the lunar craters are not as perfect as the ancient Greeks imagined, that there are sunspots in the sun (so that the celestial or "upper lunar" realms are not immutable), that the discovery of The Ganymede system directly shows that the Earth is not the only center, and that the discovery of the complete phase transition of Venus also exposes the errors of the Ptolemaic system. However, since neither copernicus's heliocentric theory nor the Ptolemaic system did coincide with Tycho's observations, heliocentrism still had no advantage at this time. It was not until Kepler corrected the heliocentric theory by replacing circular orbits with elliptical orbits that the heliocentric theory won a real victory in the race for geocentric theory. Copernicus wrote a treatise entitled "Short Treatise" to expound his basic ideas on the theory of celestial motion. He prescribed that the Earth had three kinds of motion: one was the Sunday rotation motion around the Earth's axis; one was the annual motion around the Sun; and the other was the rotational motion of the Earth's axis, which was supposed to be embedded in the celestial sphere, could keep the direction of the Earth's axis constant during its orbit around the Sun. Copernicus, in his treatise On the Motion of the Celestial Bodies, argued that the motion of celestial bodies must satisfy the following seven points: there is no such thing as the orbit of all celestial bodies or the common center of celestial bodies; the earth is only the center of the lunar orbit, not the center of the universe; all celestial bodies orbit the sun, and the center of the universe is near the sun; the distance from the earth to the sun is insignificant than the height of the celestial dome; any movement seen in the sky is caused by the movement of the earth; the heliocentric theory says that the planets people see move forward and backward, It is caused by the movement of the earth. The movement of the earth was sufficient to explain the phenomena one saw in the air; the arguments that Copernicus used to support his doctrine were predominantly mathematical in nature. He considers a scientific doctrine to be a set of ideas derived from certain hypotheses. He argues that true hypotheses or theorems must be able to do two things: they must be able to account for the observed motion of celestial bodies. They must not contradict Pythagoras's assertion that the motion of celestial bodies is circular and uniform. There were many opposing views at the time, but Copernicus refuted them with the knowledge of the time. Objection: If the earth is rotating, the air will fall behind, forming a persistent east wind. Copernicus replied: The air contains soil particles, which are of the same nature as the earth, so that the air is forced to rotate with the earth. There is no resistance when the air rotates because the air is connected to the rotating earth. Objection: If a stone is thrown upwards, it will be thrown behind by the rotation of the earth and landed on the west side of the throwing point. Copernicus replied: Since objects subject to their own weight pressure are mainly of a dirt nature, the parts undoubtedly maintain the same properties as their whole. Objection: If the Earth rotates, it will fall apart due to the action of centrifugal forces. If the Earth does not rotate, then larger planets like stars must rotate at great speeds, and the stars are easily crushed by centrifugal forces. Copernicus replied that centrifugal forces can only be found in unnatural anthropogenic motion, but in natural motion, such as the motion of the earth and celestial bodies, they are not found. [2] Geocentric theory Geocentric theory Geocentric theory geocentric theory has long prevailed in ancient Europe. It was originally proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Eudocus (who proposed the "concentric sphere" model), and was gradually established and perfected by the further development of Aristotle and Ptolemy. Ptolemy believed that the Earth was stationary at the center of the universe. From the Earth outward, there are the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn, orbiting the Earth in their respective circular orbits. Among them, the movement of the planets is more complicated than that of the sun and the moon: the planets move on this wheel, and the current wheel runs around the ground along the average wheel. Beyond the planets of the Sun and the Moon, there is a celestial sphere studded with all the stars – the stellar sky. Outside, it is the original moving sky that promotes the movement of celestial bodies. Geocentric theory is the world's first model of a planetary system. Although it is wrong to regard the earth as the center of the universe, its historical merits should not be erased. Geocentric theory acknowledges that the Earth is "spherical" and distinguishes planets from stars, with an eye to exploring and revealing the laws of planetary motion, which marks a major advance in human understanding of the universe. The most important achievement of geocentric theory is the use of mathematics to calculate the movement of the planets, and Ptolemy also proposed the concept of "orbit" for the first time and designed a model of the current wheel of the wheel. According to this model, people were able to make quantitative calculations of the motion of the planets and speculate on the location of the planets, which is a remarkable creation. In a certain period of time, according to this model, it is possible to correctly predict celestial phenomena to a certain extent, so it has also played a certain role in production practice. After all, the current wheel averaging model in the geocentric theory is cobbled together by Ptolemy based on limited observation data, and he artificially stipulates the size of the current wheel and the average wheel and the speed of the planets, so that this model is consistent with the actual measurement results. However, in the late Middle Ages, with the continuous improvement of observation instruments, the measurement of the position and motion of the planets became more and more accurate, and the deviation between the actual positions of the observed planets and the calculation results of this model was gradually revealed. However, those who believe in the geocentric theory do not realize that this is caused by the error of the geocentric theory itself, but they remedy the geocentric theory by increasing the current round. At first, this method was barely coped with, and later the small round increased to more than 80, but the exact position of the planet could not be calculated satisfactorily. This cannot but make one doubt the correctness of the geocentric theory. In the 16th century, Copernicus finally founded the "heliocentric theory" on the basis of the ancient Greek ancestors and contemporaries who held the heliocentric view. Since then, the geocentric theory has gradually been eliminated. Simply put, the "geocentric theory" is to take the earth as the center of the universe, and the "heliocentric theory" is to take the sun as the center of the universe. Founding Editor Copernicus proposed In 1499, Copernicus graduated from the University of Bologna in Italy as a Catholic priest. He returned to Poland to work with his uncle. His uncle, Watts Heliocentric Heliocentric Enrod, was the bishop of the Catholic Cathedral in Fort Felang. Copernicus lived on the top floor of the church at the time, so astronomical observations could be made for a long time. At that time, people believed in the model of the universe created by the Greek scientist Ptolemy more than 1500 years ago. Ptolemy believed that the Earth was the center of the universe and was stationary, with the Sun, Moon, Planets, and Stars all moving around the Earth, and stars moving away from the Earth and beyond the giant sphere of space. However, upon closer inspection, scientists found that the laws of planetary motion did not coincide with Ptolemaic's model of the universe. Some scientists have revised Ptolemy's theory of cosmic orbits by adding more orbits to the original orbits (or small celestial orbits). This model states that each planet orbits in a circle along a small orbit, which in turn orbits the Earth along the planet's large orbit. Hundreds of years later, the flaws in this model are becoming more and more apparent. Scientists added many orbits to this pattern, and the planets moved in circles along one orbit after another. Copernicus wanted to use "modern" (16th century) techniques to improve Ptolemy's measurements with a view to eliminating some of the small orbits. For nearly 20 years, Copernicus worked tirelessly day and night to measure the planet's positions, but the results obtained by his measurements were still not much different from Ptolemy's celestial movements. Copernicus wondered what it would be like to observe those planets on another moving planet. Based on this idea, Copernicus had an idea: if the earth were in motion, what would the planets look like? The idea became clear in his mind. Throughout the year, Copernicus observed planets from Earth at different times and distances, and the situation on each planet was different, which was when he realized that the Earth could not be located at the center of the orbit of the stars. After 20 years of observation, Copernicus found that only the annual change of the Sun was not obvious. This means that the distance between the Earth and the Sun has never changed. If the Earth is not the center of the universe, then the center of the universe is the Sun. He immediately thought that if the sun was placed at the center of the universe, then the earth should orbit the sun. This way he could cancel all the small circular orbital patterns and directly make all the known planets orbit the sun in a circular motion. However, can people accept copernicus's new cosmic model? Do people all over the world, especially the powerful Catholic Church, believe in the idea that the sun is the center of the universe? Fearing punishment from the church, Copernicus did not dare to make public his findings during his lifetime. In 1543, the discovery was made public. Even at that time, Copernicus's discoveries were constantly scorned and ridiculed by churches, universities, and other institutions, astronomers. Finally, after 60 years, Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei proved Copernicus right. [3] Aristarchus (c. 310 BC – c. 230 BC) was the first recorded astronomer in human history to advocate heliocentrism, and was the greatest astronomer and mathematician recorded in ancient Greek history. He was born on the ancient Greek island of Samos. He placed the sun, rather than the earth, at the center of the entire known universe, and he was one of the earliest proponents of heliocentrism recorded in the history of human history. But ancient Greece, his cosmology and brilliant wisdom at the time were not understood by the people of the time, and were overshadowed by the brilliance of the talents of Aristotle and Ptolemy, and it was not until the 16th century (after about 1760) that Copernicus developed and perfected Aristacus's cosmology and theory well. The most famous of the late ancient Greek astronomy was the Alexander School, and Aristacus was the representative of this school in its early years. Most of his writings have been lost to this day, and the only work that has survived to this day is a treatise on the size of the sun and moon and the distance to earth, but, through citations from others, it is known that he also wrote another book in which he developed a model of a flexible heliocentric theory. In it, he recounted the proportion of the moon's and earth's shadows during solar and lunar eclipses, and deduced that the sun was actually much larger than the earth and that the moon was smaller than the earth. From the angle between the upper and lower chords of the moon, it is inferred that the sun is ten times farther from the earth than the moon is from the earth. Aristacus argues that the Sun, Moon, and Earth form an approximate right triangle during the first or last quarter of each month. He estimates that the maximum angle is about 87°. Although the geometric theory he applied was not wrong, due to the bias in the observational data, he concluded that the distance between the sun and the earth is 20 times the distance between the moon and the earth. In fact, the former is 390 times more than the latter. Aristax noted that the Moon and the Sun have almost the same perspective, so their diameter is proportional to their distance to Earth. This is logical. Aristacus pointed out that the Sun is significantly larger than the Earth, which can be used to prove the heliocentric model. Aristarchus observed that the moon's shadow passing through the Earth takes a stellar month. So he estimated that the Diameter of the Earth was three times that of the Moon. Based on Eratosenes' calculation of the Earth's circumference of 42,000 km, he believed that the circumference of the Moon should be 14,000 km. In fact, the circumference of the Moon is about 10,916 km. Aristacus also believed that a large thing should not revolve around a small thing, so he proposed the "heliocentric movement" (unfortunately not accepted by contemporary people). He believes that on the one hand, the earth rotates from west to east every day, resulting in the rise and west of celestial bodies. On the other hand, it orbits the sun once a year, and the planets such as water, metal, fire, wood, and earth also orbit the sun. He also believes that the star is almost infinitely far away compared to the diameter of the Earth's orbit around the Sun. Therefore, it is not possible to see the phenomenon of stellar parallax due to the rotation of the Earth. The heliocentric theory about Aristax's proposal of heliocentrism has been lost. We know it exists because some later generations of scholars have mentioned it, the most famous of which is Archimedes and Plutarch. Archimedes pointed out that the focus of the Aristax heliocentric universe model is: * The sun does not move with fixed stars. * The Earth orbits the Sun. * The Earth's orbit is circular. * The sun is located in the center of the circle. * Fixed stars are extremely far away from the Sun and Earth. The Roman historian Plutarch, two centuries later, provided more detail in his discourse. He told us that Aristacus thought it was due to the daily rotation of the earth, giving us the impression that the sky was rotating around the earth. Thus, Aristak apparently understood that the Earth was a sphere, and that the sky looked like it was spinning, but it was actually the result of the Earth's daily rotation. This may explain why it is generally believed that he was the inventor of the new astronomical instrument skaphe, a bowl-shaped sundial that, unlike the gnomons of Babylonian origin, correctly tracks the sun's movements in the sky. Plutarch also tells us that Aristak taught the idea that the earth moves along the "circumference of the sun," which is the idea of the ecliptic of the sun. Most scholars believe that Aristax, after viewing Earth as a planet, also placed other planets in orbit around the Sun. Aristacus knew his model would dramatically increase the size of the universe. If the Earth hadn't moved, the star could have landed outside the Sun, Moon, and Planets. But if the Earth moves around the Sun in a huge circle, it will sometimes be closer to certain stars and sometimes farther away from them. Unless stars are extremely far away from Earth, they should appear to expand or shrink as Earth approaches or away from the star colony. But since this phenomenon did not occur, the earth must be constantly moving in the vast universe. Unfortunately, Aristacus's cosmology and theory, which were far ahead of its time and therefore not recognized by the general public, went so far as to ask the Greeks to accuse Aristachus of blasphemy. Aristax's doctrine of thought then disappeared without a trace like a precious ring thrown into the sea. Until the appearance of Copernicus. Galileo's argument Galileo believed in Copernicus through mathematical logic. This is no different from Bruno. At the same time, Galileo invented the astronomical telescope, which proved Copernicus correct to a certain extent. However, in the academic discussion organized by the Roman Religious Institute, Galileo did not defeat his opponent, leading to the final tragedy: at that time, there was scientific evidence that "the earth revolved around the sun" and "the sun revolved around the earth", and one of the flaws in Galileo's theory was that scientists could not detect the phenomenon of "Stellar Parallax". What is a bucket to star shift? This hall is very scary, in fact, the meaning is very simple. As shown in Figure 1, suppose that star A and star B are suspended in space, when I look up at star A and star B at observation point 1 on the earth's surface, their distance seems to be very close, if the earth rotates, even if I stand still, I will move with the earth to go to observation point 2, from observation point 2 to see the same two stars, their relative positions will change, from angle Y larger than angle X can know. In other words, if the phenomenon of bucket rotation star shift is found, then the rotation of the earth can be established; if there is no bucket rotation star shift, the earth should be in a fixed place. In the sixteenth century, the astronomer Tai gao. Tycho Brahe used the most sophisticated instruments of the time to detect whether there was a "bucket shift", but it seems that the relative position and distance of the stars did not seem to have changed, so the theory of the rotation of the earth was not accepted. But Galileo guided the value of mathematical principles. He always believed in heliocentrism. Before copernicus's "heliocentric theory" was published, the "geocentric theory" had been dominant in medieval Europe. Since ancient times, human beings have been constantly thinking about the structure of the universe, as early as the ancient Greek era, philosophers have put forward the idea that the earth is moving, but at that time there was no basis, so it was not recognized by people. In ancient Europe, Aristotle and Ptolemy advocated the "geocentric theory", which held that the earth was stationary and that the other stars revolved around the center of the universe. This doctrine coincided with the Christian Bible's statement of heaven, earth, and hell, and the dominant holy see vigorously supported the geocentric doctrine, integrating the "geocentric theory" with the creation of the world by God to fool people and maintain its rule. Thus the doctrine of "geocentrism" was enshrined by the church as a scripture like the Bible and has long been dominant. With the continuous development of things, the accuracy of astronomical observations gradually improved, and people gradually discovered flaws in the geocentric theory. By the time of the Renaissance, it was found that the number of equalized and current rounds proposed by Ptolemy was as high as eighty or so, which was obviously unreasonable and unscientific. One is looking forward to a scientific celestial system replacing geocentric theory. In this historical context, Copernicus's geodynamic theory came into being. Around 1515, Copernicus wrote a treatise entitled "A Brief Theory" to expound his basic ideas on the theory of the motion of celestial bodies, in which he argued that the motion of celestial bodies must satisfy the following seven points: there is no such thing as the orbit of all celestial bodies or the common center of celestial bodies; the earth is only the center of gravity and the center of the moon's orbit, not the center of the universe; all celestial bodies orbit the sun, and the center of the universe is near the sun; the distance from the earth to the sun is insignificant; any movement seen in the sky, All the phenomena of the movement of the sun seen in the air are not caused by its own movement, but by the movement of the earth, and the earth is moving several times at the same time; the planets that people see move forward and backward, and the heliocentric theory is caused by the movement of the earth. The movement of the earth is enough to explain the various phenomena that people see in the air. In addition, Copernicus described the apparent motion of the Sun, the Moon, the three outer planets (Saturn, Jupiter, and Mars), and the two inner planets (Venus, Mercury). In the book, Copernicus criticized Ptolemaic's theory, scientifically elucidated the phenomenon of celestial movement, overturned the long-dominant geocentric theory, and fundamentally negated the Christian fallacy that God created everything, thus achieving a fundamental change in astronomy. He rightly discussed the fact that the Earth orbits its axis, the Moon orbits the Earth, and the Earth and all other planets orbit the Sun. But he also grossly underestimated the size of the solar system, as did his predecessors. He was wrong to think that the orbit of the stars was a series of concentric circles. The mathematical operations in his doctrine are complex and inaccurate. But his book immediately attracted great attention and drove a number of other astronomers to make more accurate observations of the motion of the planets, the most famous of which was the great Danish astronomer Taysu Blayho, who ultimately deduced the correct laws of the movement of the stars based on the observations accumulated by Taysu. This is an unprecedented doctrine that has opened up a new era, and it is undoubtedly a blow to the Ptolemaic theory of the center of the earth, which has been regarded as the definitive theory in the academic circles for thousands of years. Although Aristarchus preceded Copernicus by more than 1700 years before Copernicus proposed the heliocentric theory, Copernicus actually received this reputation. Aristax only made a conjecture based on inspiration and did not discuss it in detail, so his doctrine was of no scientific use. After Copernicus solved the mathematical problems in the conjecture one by one, he turned it into a useful scientific theory—a theory that could be used to make predictions, and by examining the results of astronomical observations and comparing them with the old theory that the earth was the center of the universe, you would find its significance. Obviously, Copernicus's doctrine was a revolution in man's understanding of the universe, and it brought about a major change in the entire worldview of man. But in assessing copernicus's influence, we should also note that astronomy is not as widely used as physics, chemistry, and biology. Theoretically, even if people did not know anything about the knowledge and application of Copernicus doctrine, they would build things like televisions, automobiles, and modern factories. But it is inconceivable that the doctrines of Faraday, Maxwell, Lavoisier and Newton should not be used. Just considering the impact of Copernican theory on technology would completely ignore its true significance. Copernicus's book is an indispensable prelude to the work of Galileo and Kepler. They became Newton's main predecessors again. It was the discovery of both that enabled Newton to determine the laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation. Copernicus's heliocentric cosmic system, since it is a product of the times, cannot but be limited by the times. Opposing the incompleteness of theology, while at the same time manifesting itself in some of Copernicus's views, his system was flawed. Copernicus's reference to the universe was confined to a small range, specifically, his cosmic structure was what we know today as the solar system, the solar-centered celestial system. Since the universe has its center, it must have its boundary, although Copernicus denied Ptolemy's "nine heavens", but he retained a layer of stellar heaven, although he avoided the question of whether the universe is limited, but in fact he believes that the stellar celestial sphere is the "shell" of the universe, he still believes that the celestial body can only move according to the so-called perfect circular orbit, so Copernicus's cosmic system still contains immovable central celestial bodies. But as the founder of modern natural science, Copernicus's historical merits are great. The confirmation that the Earth is not the center of the universe, but one of the planets, thus setting off a fundamental revolution in astronomy and a milestone in mankind's search for objective truth. Copernicus's great achievements not only paved the way to modern astronomy, but also ushered in a new era in which the science of nature as a whole moved forward. From the time of Copernicus, the natural sciences and philosophy, free from the shackles of the Church, began to develop by leaps and bounds. Copernicus's scientific achievements, which were the product of his time, turned to promote the development of the times. In the fifteenth and sixth centuries, Europe was a crucial period of transformation from feudal to capitalist society, and in this two hundred years, society underwent tremendous changes. Before the 14th century, Europe was full of small city-states that were divided. Later, with the rise of urban industry and commerce, especially the development of mining and metallurgy, many new large cities emerged, and small city-states had a tendency to unite to form a state. By the end of the 15th century, largely centralized monarchies had emerged in many countries. At that time, Poland not only had big cities like Krakow and Poznan, but also many cities where handicrafts flourished. Annexed to Poland in 1526, Warsaw became an important commercial, political, cultural and geographical center, becoming the capital of the Polish state at the end of the 16th century. In line with this political and economic change, cultural and scientific reflections have also begun to be felt. At that time, Europe was "theocracy", the Holy See controlled many countries, the Bible was proclaimed the supreme truth, any doctrine that violated the Bible was denounced as "heresy", and anyone who opposed theocratic rule was burned at the stake. For its own survival and development, the emerging bourgeoisie set off a struggle against feudalism and superstitious ideas of the Church, and a humanistic trend of thought emerged. The weapons of war they used were the philosophy, science, and literature of ancient Greece, untainted by theology. This was the Renaissance movement that shook Europe. The Renaissance first took place in Italy and soon spread to Poland and other European countries. At the same time, the activity of commerce also promoted the development of foreign trade. Driven by the spell of "gold," many European adventurers sailed to Africa, India, and the entire Far East. Ocean voyages require rich astronomical and geographical knowledge, and the observation data accumulated from reality make people feel that the cosmology of "static earth and heavenly movement" that was popular at that time is questionable, which requires people to further explore the secrets of the universe, thus promoting the development of astronomy and geography. In 1492, the famous Italian navigator Columbus discovered the New World, and Magellan and his companions circled the earth, proving that the earth was round, so that people began to truly understand the earth. [4] Influence on other countries In the Middle Ages, under the tight control of the Church, there were also vigorous religious revolutions. Because many of Catholic doctrines do not conform to the teachings of the Bible, and too many of the pope's personal will and the achievements of various theologians themselves have been added, many believers have begun to question the doctrine and organization of the Catholic Church and launch an action to return to the Bible. Jan Hus (1369-1415), a Czech patriot and rector of the University of Prague, publicly denounced the oppression and exploitation of the Czech Republic by the German feudal lords and the Catholic Church at the Synod in Constantinople. Although he was burned at the stake by the reactionary church, his revolutionary activities provoked a strong reaction in society. The Czech peasants staged an uprising under the banner of the Hussites, and the movement also spread to Poland. In 1517, in Germany, Martin Luther (1483-1546) opposed the sale of atonement in the church and publicly broke with the Pope. In 1521, Luther exposed the sins of the Holy See at the Congress of Worms and proposed the establishment of a Protestant Church. Protestant doctrines were supported by many countries, and Poland was also deeply influenced