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In the second half of the 20th century, as the Cold War dragged on, the world's two largest camps vied for ideological leadership. In this war without gunpowder, the Soviet education system became a key battleground. Textbooks, these seemingly simple learning tools, are entrusted with the task of shaping the minds of the next generation. However, a series of reforms in the Soviet Ministry of Education, especially cultural policy adjustments during the Khrushchev and Gorbachev periods, triggered a violent social and political upheaval, and was even seen by some as an intrinsic factor that led to the collapse of the Soviet Union.
Encouraged by Gorbachev's policy of "new thinking", a radical reform of textbook content began, old dogmas were discarded and new ideas were introduced. Rather than simply preaching the superiority of communism, these textbooks attempt to provide a more balanced perspective, including an objective introduction to Western capitalism. Although this move was aimed at opening minds and promoting intellectual pluralism, it also introduced a large number of Western ideas, which was undoubtedly a huge adventure for a country based on ideological unity.
Khrushchev's reforms preliminary
After Stalin's death in 1953, Khrushchev quickly came to power, ushering in an important period of perestroika in Soviet history. He first focused on solving the political problems left over from the Stalin era, including the oppression of political prisoners and intellectuals. Under Stalin, many writers, artists, and thinkers were suppressed or even thrown into prison or exile for their views that contradicted the official line.
The policy changes after Khrushchev came to power were first manifested in the release and restoration of his reputation in the political sphere. He ordered the release of a number of political prisoners, many of whom had been wrongfully convicted for political reasons during the Stalin period. This move directly affected the fate of thousands of people, not only restoring their freedom, but also bringing a new wind to the ideological environment of the entire society.
In the field of culture, Khrushchev's policies were equally remarkable. He ordered the lifting of the ban on a number of Stalinist literary works, including a number of important modernist and critical realist literary works that were considered anachronistic because of their criticism of social and political realities. The republication and circulation of these books had a profound impact on the Soviet cultural and literary circles, and literary creation began to gradually break free from strict political constraints and move towards pluralism and openness.
In addition, Khrushchev carried out the restoration of the reputations of cultural figures who were implicated for political reasons. This was not only a restoration of their personal reputation, but also a symbolic restoration of social justice in the USSR. This includes many cultural and artistic workers who were deprived of their civil rights, positions, and even lives during the Stalin era on charges of "national traitors" and "right-leaners."
These reforms, while intended to correct the mistakes of the Stalin era, also sparked widespread discussion within Soviet society. Many of the freed cultural figures and political prisoners returned to society and became actively involved in cultural and political activities, and their experiences and works became an important resource for discussing the history and political path of the Soviet Union.
The culmination of the critique of Stalinism
In 1956, at the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Khrushchev made the historic decision to directly criticize Stalin's personality cult and tyranny in a speech known as the "secret report." The report was not released publicly, but was conveyed to the party's top leadership in a closed-door meeting. Khrushchev revealed many crimes during Stalin's rule, including the unjustified arrests and executions of high-ranking party and military officials during the Great Purge, as well as the oppression of ordinary citizens.
The contents of the report quickly spread both inside and outside the party, although its official text remained secret from the general public. The spread of the news caused a strong shock and radically shaken the perception of the Stalin era in Soviet society as a whole. In the field of culture and the arts, this event became a turning point, marking the gradual lifting of the strict policies of censorship and repression in the past.
As Stalin's cult of personality was openly criticized, works that had previously been banned or ignored because of political sensitivities began to be allowed to be published again. Creators in the literary and artistic circles have gained unprecedented creative freedom, and critical works have increased rapidly. Playwrights, novelists, and poets began to explore social and political topics previously considered taboo, often exposing social injustice and political persecution during the Stalin era.
During this period, Soviet theaters began to stage a repertoire of critical realism, which often criticized the remnants of the old society and the problems that had not been solved in the new society. Literary journals and magazines have also begun to publish the works of previously banned writers on topics such as class conflict and abuse of power.
For example, artists who were previously criticized as "formalists" or "heretics" are now given the opportunity to be re-evaluated. Their paintings, sculptures and other art forms were able to be exhibited in public exhibitions that would have been unthinkable in Stalin's time. This cultural thaw is not limited to the visual arts, the fields of music and film have undergone similar transformations. The musical works began to try to incorporate elements of Western modern music, and the film began to explore the inner complexity of the characters, moving away from the previous propaganda model.
Opening up to the outside world and cultural adjustment
In the late 1950s and early 1960s, Khrushchev adopted a series of tactics aimed at reconciling Soviet-American relations in the face of international political pressures during the Cold War. These strategies involve not only political and economic aspects, but also cultural and educational reforms. Khrushchev recognized that confrontation with the United States should not be limited to the military and political spheres, and that cultural exchanges are also an important channel for easing tensions.
To this end, the Khrushchev government began to adjust the way the United States and its capitalist system are depicted, and this adjustment is first and foremost reflected in educational materials. Previously, Soviet textbooks and cultural materials were filled with harsh criticism and negative portrayals of capitalism, especially for the United States, which often presented in textbooks as negative portrayals of America's social problems and economic inequality. Existing illustrations and propaganda slogans, such as drawings and provocative slogans depicting the oppression of workers by big business in the United States, were seen as a sign of dogmatism and were not conducive to developing students' ability to think independently.
In parallel with the deletion of these contents, the editorial team of the Ministry of Culture introduced a series of new textbook contents. This includes positive depictions of U.S. technological progress and economic development, as well as illustrations and articles that show the virtues of U.S. cultural diversity and democracy. For example, textbooks include chapters on NASA's successful space exploration, which show how technology can advance society, and American innovations in music, film, and literature, which are designed to convey a more holistic and pluralistic international perspective to students.
New textbooks have also begun to emphasize the importance of critical thinking, and the Ministry of Education is encouraging teachers to not only impart knowledge, but also guide students to explore and question information. In this way, the teaching material is no longer a one-way information transfer tool, but becomes a platform for stimulating discussion and thinking. In history textbooks, the description of the Cold War has also been adjusted to analyze historical events more from the perspective of both sides, rather than purely from the perspective of the Soviet Union.
Along with the adjustment of the content of textbooks, the Ministry of Culture of the USSR also took active measures in another important aspect of educational reform, that is, the expansion and enrichment of extracurricular reading materials. In this regard, they paid special attention to the introduction of economics and humanities books from the United States, a policy aimed at increasing the diversity of educational materials and reducing ideological bias, but this also allowed American thinking to invade the minds of the Soviet people.
Deepening reform of education and cultural policies
In the 1980s, after Gorbachev came to power, the Soviet Union's educational and cultural policy was further opened and renewed.
In late 1986, when Gorbachev publicly criticized Soviet history textbooks, his words shook the entire educational community. He pointed out that these textbooks are riddled with outdated dogmatism, formulaism and formalism, a way of teaching that neither stimulates students' thinking nor properly reflects the complexity and diversity of history. Gorbachev's criticism pointed directly at the fundamental problems of the Soviet education system, which had long emphasized blind obedience to authority and neglected the cultivation of critical thinking. He urged the Ministry of Culture to revise its teaching materials and rewrite history from a more open and pluralistic perspective.
The order was quickly communicated to all levels of the education system, causing widespread attention and rapid action. A new revision of the textbook has begun, with the aim of weeding out outdated and rigid content and introducing more discussion of international perspectives and historical controversies. The new textbook was written by a team of historians, educators, and even government-sanctioned critical thinkers who discussed how to present Soviet and world history in a balanced way.
At the same time, the perception of historical figures in Soviet society was quietly changing. For example, images of war heroes, such as Zoya in World War II, who was a symbol of resistance to Nazi German aggression but was later portrayed as a schizophrenic. This shift reflects a shift in society's complex perceptions of war and heroism. Sacrifice on the battlefield is reassessed, and the mere hero-worship of the past gives way to a deeper understanding of human suffering and sacrifice.
This shift became evident especially under the influence of Gorbachev's policies. The revision of history textbooks promoted by him is not only an update of academic content, but also a major ideological adjustment. New textbooks began to evaluate the role of the Soviet Union in history from a more objective perspective, including its actions in the Soviet-Vietnamese war. History books have begun to reflect more on the brutality of war and individual sacrifice on the battlefield, rather than simply heroic praises.
To a certain extent, this new educational policy and historical interpretation brought new ideological enlightenment to Soviet society and also provided ideological preparation for the social upheaval of the collapse of the Soviet Union. Through the updated teaching materials, young people and the general public began to have a more diverse understanding and reflection on the past, which posed a challenge to the stability of the Soviet system. Eventually, when the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, there was a new perception and evaluation of all this.
Resources:
From Thomas Batson et al.; Before and after Gorbachev's departure from the mountain[M]. 1987
From Li Xiaohui. Research on patriotic education in the Soviet Union[M]. 2013
From Zhou Shangwen et al. Research on the ruling mode of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union[M]. 2010
From Xiao Su, compiled by Wang Yigao. Literature compilation of important education laws and regulations in Russia during the transition period[M]. 2009