The culture of the Warring States period is the foundation of Chinese culture, and the basic concept of the development of the culture of the following dynasties has not gone beyond this category, so the culture of the Warring States period must be detailed, especially the culture with concepts.
I. Philosophy
1. A hundred schools of thought contend.
1] Changes in taxis.
"Shi" was originally the lowest class of the aristocracy, with a certain number of "food fields", educated in the "six arts", able to write and martial arts, and could act as a junior officer in wartime, and a retainer of the secretary and doctor in peacetime. By the late Spring and Autumn Period, the upper class of the aristocracy had become decadent and incompetent, and only scholars could still maintain the traditional knowledge of the six arts. By the time of the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, due to economic and political changes, cultural and academic changes took place accordingly, and further development was achieved, and scholars became greatly active. At the same time, governments of various countries sought to reform and implement bureaucratic systems, and the demand for scholars increased rapidly, so a new group of "scholars" emerged among the common people, and "scholars" gradually became the common name for intellectuals.
It turned out that only the nobility had the right to education. The main content of school education is the six arts: etiquette, music, archery, royalty, calligraphy, and mathematics. With the economic and political changes, the demand for scholars increased, and so did education, and the atmosphere of gathering disciples to give lectures began to rise.
At this time, due to the need for learning, the number of ancient books passed down increased compared to before. Due to the development of the silk weaving industry and the increase in the production of silk silk, the books at that time were not only written on bamboo slips, but also began to be written on silk silk. Silk silk is easy to copy, and it is also easy to store and carry. "Mozi Ming Ghost Part II" said: "I am afraid that future generations will not be able to know, so the bamboo silk of the book." At this time, many scholars had a large collection of books, such as Mozi's "journey to the south, and Guanzhong (i.e., Huzhong) carried a lot of books." The increase in the collection and circulation of books helped scholars gather to give lectures, carry out academic discussions, and write books and lectures.
2] The style of Corporal Lixian.
At that time, governments began to carry out political reforms, and there was an urgent need to select talents from all walks of life to carry out the reform work. The main target of selection is taxis. Successful kings recruited wise men to serve them, and some ministers often recommended talents to the monarch in order to enrich the country and strengthen the army.
Since the time of Tian Huan, the state of Qi has set up a school palace under the capital of Linzi, "setting up the name of the doctor" to entertain scholars. By the time of King Qi Yi of Qi Wei, Jixia was full of talents, and developed to more than 1,000 people, including more than 70 people, including Chun Yu, Tian Piao, Jiezi, Huanyuan, Song Yu, Shen Dao, Zou Zheng, etc., called "Mr. Jixia", "all ordered to be called Doctor Li, for the opening of the first Kangzhuang, and the high gate house to respect it". The Qin Dynasty's establishment of the system of doctoral officials originated from this.
3] The style of lobbying and raising soldiers.
The culture of bachelor's lobbying is also gradually flourishing. A very ordinary soldier, through lobbying, can be promoted to the ruling minister once appreciated by the king. For example, Wei Ying was originally a retainer of Wei Xiangguo's uncle, but after entering Qin, he said that he moved Qin Xiaogong and achieved Qin's highest official position. It is said that Mencius "rode dozens of cars and hundreds of servants to pass food on the princes".
After the middle of the Warring States period, the powerful ministers of each country were more than one of the scholars. Qi Guomeng Weijun Tianwen, Zhao Guopingyuan Jun Zhao Sheng, Wei Guoxin Lingjun Wei Wuji, Chu Guochun Shenjun Huang Xie, Qin Guowen Xinhou Lü Buwei raised three diners. These diners often give advice to their masters, or run lobbying, or handle certain affairs, and some write books and speak on behalf of their masters, such as Xin Lingjun's "Wei Gongzi's Art of War" and Lü Buwei's "Lü's Spring and Autumn Period".
During the Warring States period, the scholars were the most active class in society at that time.
4] The status of the scholar has been improved.
Before the Spring and Autumn Period, "Zi" was originally the honorific title of the Qing to which the Son of Heaven belonged, such as Weizi and Jizi. In the early Spring and Autumn Period, only a few princes belonged to the secretary called "Zi", after the middle of the Spring and Autumn Period, the princes' secretary was generally called "Zi", although the doctor was also called "Zi", to the Spring and Autumn Period, the Warring States Period, due to the improvement of the social status of scholars, the style of writing books and lectures and gathering disciples to give lectures rose, "Zi" became the honorific title of famous scholars and teachers.
5] A hundred schools of thought contend.
In the great social changes of the Warring States Period, representatives of various schools of thought, standing on different standpoints, put forward different founding strategies and philosophical theories, and created an academic trend of "a hundred schools of thought contending".
In the course of its development, the same school of thought often diverges. Sima Tan in the early Western Han Dynasty once summarized the so-called "Hundred Schools of Thought" into six schools: Yin and Yang, Confucianism, Mo, Name, Law, and Morality, and Liu Xin in the late Western Han Dynasty summarized into ten schools, namely Confucianism, Mo, Taoism, Name, Law, Yin and Yang, Agriculture, Vertical and Horizontal, Miscellaneous and Novelists. In addition to the novelists who belong to the scope of literature, the descendants are called "Nine Streams". Among these nine streams, apart from the vertical and horizontal schools that talk about the combination of vertical and horizontal, the miscellaneous schools that synthesize the theories of various schools, and the farmers who talk about "the people and the people and farming" and agricultural technology, there are only six schools of Confucianism, Mo, Taoism, name, law, and yin and yang that are important in academic thought.
According to the Hanshu Yiwen Zhi, the Nine Streams and Ten Families came from different royal officials (the official government of the dynasty), Confucianism came from the officials of Situ, the Mohists came from the guards of the Qing Temple, the Taoists came from the historians, the Legalists came from the officials, the famous families came from the officials of the ceremony, the Zongheng family came from the officials of pedestrians, the peasant families came from the officials of the peasants, the Yin and Yang families came from the officials of Xihe, the novelists came from the barnyard officials, and the miscellaneous families came from the parliamentary officials. There is indeed a certain basis for this proposition of tracing the origins. Before Confucius, there were no private facilities for disciples to give lectures, and all kinds of traditional academic culture were controlled by the relevant government in charge. From the late Spring and Autumn Period to the Warring States Period, the Nine Streams and Ten Schools suddenly arose, putting forward various ideals and reform plans, and the source of their academic ideas inevitably came from different relevant royal officials.
2. Confucianism.
1】孔子。
Confucius, Mingqiu, Zi Zhongni, 551-479 BC. Confucius's ancestors were the royal family of Yin Shang. Zhou destroyed Shang, Yin people were enshrined in the Song Dynasty, and later turned into the home of the minister in the internal turmoil. When Confucius's great-grandfather Kong Fangshu, due to the civil unrest in the Song Dynasty, he fled to the Lu country. Since then, he has lost his position and has been reduced from a nobleman to a scholar. Confucius was born in the state of Lu (present-day Qufu, Shandong).
Confucius's father, Liang Su, was the governor of the province and died shortly after Confucius's birth. When Confucius was a child, his family had been reduced to the status of ordinary people. Confucius called himself "a young man and a lowly man", and he was a "commissioner" in charge of warehouses and a "Chengtian" in charge of grazing, all of which were low-status officials. He also said, "I am determined to learn five times out of ten, and I am determined to stand at twenty." After the age of 30, he realized that he had succeeded in his studies and formed his own independent thoughts, so he began to recruit disciples, creating the first private school in Chinese history. Lu was in turmoil, Confucius left Lu and went to Qi, and returned to Lu a year later. Confucius was 50 years old, and he was the commander of Lu Renzhong, and within a year, he was made the chief of the central capital and the chief of the chief of the country. At that time, the three families of Lu were autocratic, and Confucius proposed to "fall into the three capitals" to curb the power of the three families, but it failed, so he left Lu in the thirteenth year of Dinggong to go to Qi. After that, he traveled all over the world, and successively visited Wei, Cao, Song, Chen, Cai and other countries, but to no avail. Fourteen years after Confucius left Lu, he returned to Lu at the age of 67. After that, he was mainly engaged in education until his death.
Confucius lived in the country of Lu, the country of Lu is the feudal state of Zhou Gongdan, many aspects of the use of Zhou Tianzi's etiquette, in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty where the etiquette is bad, there are still Zhou rites, at that time "Zhou rites are all in Lu" said. In this environment, Confucius learned the Zhou rites and took the Zhou rites as the ideal system.
When Qi Jinggong asked him about the government, he replied that the most important thing was to "correct his name", to achieve "the monarch, the ministers, the father, and the son", and restore the order of the monarch and the father and son in accordance with the requirements of Zhou Li.
Confucius also advocated appropriate improvements to the ritual system. He believes that in the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties, Yin Shang inherited the rites of the Xia Dynasty but gained or lost, and Zhou inherited the rites of Yin Shang and also gained and lost. He saw the need for gains and losses in the inheritance, and adopted a "herd" attitude on some non-fundamental changes.
Confucius especially put forward the idea of "government with virtue", saying: "The Tao is governed by government, and all are punished, and the people are free and shameless; He emphasized that morality should be the basis of etiquette and moral education should be the foundation of governing the country.
Confucius's moral thought is benevolence. Benevolence is an ancient moral concept, and Confucius inherited the ideas of his predecessors and gave full play to them to build a moral ideological system with benevolence as the core. The fundamental requirement of benevolence is "self-denial and retribution", that is, to make one's words and deeds conform to the rules of etiquette, "do not see, do not listen, do not speak, and do not move." "Whether words and deeds are in line with the requirements of propriety is the fundamental criterion of benevolence and inhumanity. Specifically, the most important thing is to be filial. "He is also a filial brother, and there are few people who are good at offending. Those who are not good at committing crimes and are good at making trouble, there is no such thing. ”
Confucius also proposed that benevolence means "loving others". Confucius put forward a principle: "Do not do unto others as you would have them do unto you." "I want to establish people, and I want to reach people." ”
Confucius lobbied the princes with his ideas, but without success, he devoted his main energies to education. He attaches great importance to education and regards education as an important aspect of his government. Through his educational activities, he trained a group of children to govern in various countries in order to implement his political ideas, which in itself was a way and method for him to govern.
Confucius's education was "educational, classless", regardless of wealth, wealth, poverty, and geographical proximity. "Confucius taught with poetry, books, rituals and music", he collected ancient documents, sorted out "poems", "books" and "music", and deleted and revised the historical book "Spring and Autumn" recorded by the historians of the Lu State to teach his disciples. "Yi", "Poems", "Books", "Rites", "Music", and "Spring and Autumn", that is, the content of Confucius's teaching, was called the Six Arts at that time, and later called the Six Classics.
Confucius put forward many valuable ideas in education, such as the heuristic teaching idea of "not being angry, not being angry, not wandering", the method of teaching students according to their aptitude, and the idea of combining learning and thinking. Confucius cultivated and educated many disciples, according to the "Historical Records of the Confucius Family", Confucius's disciples "covered 3,000 Yan, and 72 people were proficient in six arts." Many of them became officials, while others were engaged in education and spread the ideas of Confucius, which had a great impact on society, forming China's first folk school, Confucianism, which became prominent for a while.
After the death of Confucius, "Confucianism was divided into eight", "there are Confucianism of Zizhang, Confucianism of Zisi, Confucianism of Yan, Confucianism of Mencius, Confucianism of Qidiao, Confucianism of Zhongliang, Confucianism of Sun, and Confucianism of Lezheng." Han Fei's account may not be an accurate reflection of the development of Confucianism after Confucius's death, but one thing is certain, that is, when Confucius's disciples spread Confucius's thoughts, due to the different conditions of each person and the different degrees of acceptance and understanding of Confucius's thoughts, the content taught was also different, so Confucianism also formed different schools and developed.
2] The Analects.
The Analects is a collection of Confucius's sayings edited by Confucius's students and disciples. It was probably edited by a disciple of Zeng Shen, because the book is called "Zengzi", and there are far more remarks about Zengzi than about other disciples of Confucius. Zengzi's famous saying is "five days and three provinces of my body". The Analects is the Bible of the Chinese, and its influence is particularly great.
3] "The Book of Filial Piety".
It is said to have been made by Zengzi, who was particularly particular about filial piety. In Confucianism, filial piety is the foundation of human ethics and the characteristic of Confucian civilization.
4] "The Book of Rites".
Confucius used the Book of Etiquette as a textbook and often discussed etiquette with his students, and the students grasped many of the meanings behind the etiquette. After the death of Confucius, the disciples integrated these materials into what became the Book of Rites. There are many materials of Zeng Zi in the "Book of Rites", which may have been compiled by Zeng Zi's disciples. The three rites of "Rites", "Zhou Rites" and "Rites" are the most important classics of Confucianism. Zhu Xi of the Southern Song Dynasty studied the "Book of Rites" and felt that the two articles "University" and "The Mean" were the most important, so he took them out and wrote them into a separate book, and annotated them together with "Analects" and "Mencius", called "Four Books", which had a huge impact. Among the most important quotes are–
"The Mean": The gentleman is modest, the villain is anti-modest, the gentleman is mean, the gentleman is in the middle, the gentleman is in the middle, the villain is in the mean, and the villain is unscrupulous.
"University": Those who want to be clear and virtuous in the world will rule the country first. Those who want to rule their country must first gather their families. Those who want to gather their families must first cultivate their bodies. Those who want to cultivate their bodies must first correct their hearts. Those who want to correct their hearts must first be sincere. If you want to be sincere, you should know it first. Enlightenment is in Gewu. Character and then know, know and then sincerity, sincerity and then heart, heart and then body cultivation, body cultivation and then family Qi, family Qi and then national governance, national governance and then the world is peaceful.
"Tan Gong": Harsh government is fiercer than a tiger.
"Township Drinking Righteousness": The people enter the filial piety, respect the elders for the elderly, and then become a religion, and then become a religion and then the country can be safe.
"Learning Notes": If jade is not cut, it will not be made; people do not learn and do not know. It is to learn and then know the insufficiency, and teach and then know the difficulty. Knowing the insufficiency, then being able to self-reflect, knowing the difficulty, and then being able to improve themselves. Therefore, it is said that teaching and learning are also mutually beneficial.
"Rites and Fortunes": The road is also a trip to the world, the world is for the public, the selection of talents and abilities, and the belief and harmony. Therefore, people do not only kiss their relatives, do not have only sons and sons, so that the old have an end, the strong have a use, the young have a growth, the widows, widows, lonely and the sick are all supported, men have a share, and women have a home. If you are evil and abandon it to the ground, you don't have to hide it, and if you don't want to do it, you don't have to do it. It is because of the plot that it is closed but not prosperous, the theft and thieves are not done, and the foreign household is not closed. It is said to be the same. Today's avenue is hidden, the world is home, each parent is his own family, each son is his son, the goods are already, the adult world and the courtesy, the domain Guo Gouchi is solid, the etiquette is the discipline, the righteous is the monarch and the minister, the father and son, the brothers, the husband and wife, the system, the field, the virtuous and brave, and the meritorious. Therefore the use is done, and the soldier starts from this. Yu, Tang, Wen, Wu, Chengwang, and Zhou Gong were also selected by this. These six gentlemen have not been polite. With its righteousness, in order to test its faith, there is a fault, the punishment is benevolent, and the people are constant, if there is no such person, the person who is in the city will go, and the public will think that it will be a disaster. It is said to be well-off.
"Bosan": Kimiko......
5] "Spring and Autumn" three passes.
"Spring and Autumn" is a historical textbook edited by Confucius based on the historical records of the Lu Kingdom. It is said that it is a small word, and the pen is sharpened. Because it is too simplistic, many people after Confucianism have been passed down to explain, the most famous of which are the three schools.
"Zuo's Spring and Autumn Biography": Zuo Qiu Ming wrote a biography, the narrative is detailed, the age is more than "Spring and Autumn", the characters are full of words and deeds, very vivid and expressive, only Sima Qian can be compared with later generations, but some write ghosts and gods close to witches.
"The Biography of Liang in the Spring and Autumn Period": Gu Liang Chizuo Biography explains the subtle meaning of Confucius's "Spring and Autumn".
"The Legend of the Ram in the Spring and Autumn Period": The Legend of the Ram is also an explanation of the meaning of the subtle words.
The three biographies of the Spring and Autumn Period are all listed in the Thirteen Classics of Confucianism, which have a great influence.
6] Mencius.
Mencius Mingke, Zou people, once went to Qi when King Qi Wei, when Song Wang Yan was king, traveled to Song and Teng, in the later years of Wei Hui King to Wei State, successively met Wei Hui King, Wei Xiang Wang, and then did Qi Xuan King Qing. After the king of Qi Yi defeated Yan, he left the state of Qi and retired to Zou, so he wrote seven articles of "Mencius" with his disciples Wan Zhang and Gongsun Chou. He was born and died between 385 and 305 B.C.E.
Mencius was a famous Confucian in the middle of the Warring States period and a disciple of Confucius's grandson, Zi Si. He admired Confucius very much, believing that "since the beginning of the people, there has never been a flourishing in Confucius." He appointed himself as the heir of Confucius, believing that "there will be a king in five hundred years", from Yao Shun to Shang Tang, from Shang Tang to King Wen of Zhou, it has been five hundred years, from King Wen of Zhou to Confucius for more than 500 years, and it has been more than 100 years to him at that time.
Kingcraft. Mencius advocated emulating the kings in order to practice benevolent government and royal ways, and to oppose the abuse and hegemony of some kings at that time. He tried his best to advocate and imitate Yao Shun, saying: "The way of Yao Shun is not to govern the world with benevolence, and it cannot rule the world peacefully. He also advocated emulating King Wen of Zhou, saying, "King Shiwen, five years for a big country and seven years for a small country, will govern the world." He divided the political system into two types: "hegemony" and "royal way", "the one who pretends to be benevolent with strength" and "the king who is benevolent with virtue". The "royal road" he spoke of was his political ideal, advocating "benevolent government for the people, punishing punishments, and collecting taxes at a low rate"; and advocating "respecting the virtuous and empowering the virtuous and the handsome in their reigns."
Theory of Sexual Goodness. The main starting point of Mencius's doctrine is the theory of sexual goodness, he believes that human disposition is inherently good, and that everyone has "a hidden heart", a "shameful heart", a "respectful heart", and a "right and wrong heart". Mencius's reply was that due to the influence of external things, the original goodness was not cultivated. In order to avoid the temptation of external things, we must first start from "not being moved" and "cultivate the spirit of Haoran", so as to expand people's goodness.
Benevolent. He said in "King Hui of Liang": "If you don't violate the agricultural time, you can't eat grain, you can't eat it, you can't eat it when you don't go into the pond, you can't eat fish and turtles, and when you go into the mountains and forests, you can't use timber and wood." Grain and fish and turtles can not be eaten, timber and wood can not be used, it is to make the people live and die without regrets. There is no regret in health and death, and the beginning of the royal road is also. A house of five acres is made of mulberry trees, and fifty people can be clothed; chickens, guineas, dogs, and animals can eat meat without losing time; and those who are seventy acres of land can eat meat; and a hundred acres of land should not be taken away from it, so that a few families can be free from hunger; the teaching of strict order should be affirmed with the righteousness of filial piety, and those who are awarded (spotted) white will not be worthy of wearing on the road. Seventy people eat meat, and the people are not hungry or cold, but those who are not kings are not not. ”
Mencius is the main classic of Confucianism and has a great influence. "The people are precious, the community is secondary, and the king is light"; Therefore, the heavens will descend on the people, and they must first suffer their minds, strain their muscles and bones, starve their bodies and skins, empty their bodies, and act chaotically, so they are tempted to endure and benefit what they can't"; The king regards the minister as a sibling, the minister regards the king as the heart, the king regards the minister as a dog and a horse, the minister regards the king as a countryman, the king regards the minister as a mustard, and the minister regards the king as a wolf. These ideas are very hated by Zhu Yuanzhang and other absolutist monarchs, and they have the essence of democracy.
7】荀子。
Xunzi is famous, and he is from Zhao Guo. At the age of fifteen, he went to Linzi in Qi to study, and after King Qi destroyed the Song Dynasty, he traveled south to Chu, and returned to Jixia when he was King Xiang of Qi, becoming the oldest teacher in Jixia. He once entered Qin to see King Qin Zhao and Fan Ju, and praised the government and opposition of Qin for their law-abiding work. He also went to Zhao State and Linwujun to discuss the art of war in front of King Zhao Xiaocheng, and later went to Chu State to be the county commander of Lanling (now Lanling Town, Cangshan, Shandong). Later home wrote books.
Man will conquer the heavens. Xunzi believes that the world is material, matter is changing, and change is regular, and the law can be used to serve human beings. Xunzi has a more correct understanding of the natural world, and he further believes that the poverty, disease, disaster, and ferocity of human society are not determined by any providence, but by people themselves.
Sexual evil. He believes that human beings are born with sensory requirements, they need to eat when they are hungry, they need to dress when they are cold, they need to rest when they are tired, they love their ears and eyes, and they are jealous of human feelings. If it goes its course, there will inevitably be strife, cruelty, fornication, and other sinful acts. Therefore, Xunzi believes that people must have wise teachers and laws to correct their mistakes, and they must be taught with etiquette and righteousness, so that people can "turn evil into good."
Etiquette. Xunzi believes that the reason why human beings can overcome nature is that they can be gregarious. The reason why people can be gregarious is that they can "divide". "Distribution" refers not only to the division of labor in production, the distribution of products, but also to the division of people's ranks. Xunzi believes that human nature is originally evil, human beings are born with desires, and they can't help but pursue desires. Therefore, it is necessary to "control propriety and righteousness" so that people can be content with their own hierarchical status and "get what is appropriate." Xunzi's political thought is based on etiquette and righteousness, but also attaches importance to law.
Unification. Xunzi believes that the use of "etiquette and righteousness" can achieve the goal of unifying the world. It is necessary to choose the "king's man" to implement the "king's law", and choose a good country that can implement the "king's law". Xunzi said: "The monarch is also a boat, and the person is a water." The water carries the boat, and the water capsits the boat. Therefore, he advocated the use of measures such as "saving money to enrich the people" and reducing taxes to alleviate class contradictions, and the "benevolence and righteousness" and "royal road" of "convincing people with virtue" to win the people's return and complete reunification.
Xunzi was a thinker who gathered the great achievements of the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, accommodating the ideas of many other schools of thought, reflecting the trend of ideological unification. Unfortunately, it has not been recognized by orthodox Confucianism, and his work "Xunzi" is only classified as Zhuzi.
2. Taoist.
1] Lao Tzu.
The age of Lao Tzu was no longer clear when Sima Qian wrote the "Historical Records". For a while, he thought that the surname Li Ming'er was the old man who Confucius once greeted him, and for a while he thought that it might be the Zhou Taishi Dan who had seen Qin Xiangong when King Zhou Lie, and then he said that Lao Tzu's son Mingzong had been a Wei general and was sealed in Duan Gan. The book Lao Tzu is a philosophical poem written in rhyme and is the main work of Taoism. "Lao Tzu", also known as "Tao Te Ching", is divided into two parts: "Tao Jing" and "Tao Ching". According to the silk book unearthed in Mawangdui, Changsha, the "Book of Virtues" is the first part, and the "Tao Jing" is the next part.
"Lao Tzu"
Lao Tzu called the natural law of the development and change of things in the world "the way of heaven" or "the way". He believes that there are universal contradictions between things, and the opposites of the various contradictions he enumerates can be seen everywhere in the Wugan Yan. At the same time, he also realized that it is the natural law of change that various things often move towards their opposite side in contradictions.
What is valuable about the struggle strategy mentioned by Lao Tzu is that it attaches importance to the role of subjective efforts, and first of all, it is necessary to prevent the creation of conditions for failure and casualties. Lao Tzu regarded prosperity and decline as the "way of heaven", so he attached great importance to preventing the transformation conditions from prosperity to decline. He advocated encouraging the arrogance of the enemy, thereby accelerating the transformation of the enemy from prosperity to decline.
Lao Tzu opposed the actions of the great powers of the time to annex land and conquer small countries. Advocating "inaction", he believes that "inaction" can strive for the direction of the world, and the method of "doing it" and "persisting" will not get the world.
Lao Tzu called the law of development of the contradiction of things he knew "Dao", and believed that "Dao" is natural without action, "Tao is always doing nothing and doing nothing", "Heaven is the Tao, and the Tao is natural". He further believed that the Tao is the root of all things in heaven and earth: "The Tao gives birth to one, one life to two, two to three, and three to all things. ”
Lao Tzu opposes the "rule of law", believing that "laws and regulations are prosperous" and that "there are many thieves"; he opposes "promising" rule, that "the people are difficult to govern, and that they should do what they do"; he opposes the excessive collection of land taxes, and believes that "the hunger of the people is due to the amount of food taxes"; he opposes the "sages" of the Mohists and Legalists, saying: "If you are not virtuous, the people will not fight"; he opposes war, and believes that "the soldiers are ominous weapons", and also opposes the "rule of etiquette" advocated by Confucianism, and believes that "etiquette" has become the cause of great chaos.
Lao Tzu put forward the ideals of "rule by inaction" and "small country and widowed people". He wants to "keep the people in ignorance and without desire." Specifically, it is to "not expensive and rare goods", "not to see what you want", "to abandon wisdom, to abandon benevolence, and to abandon profit". He believes that "inaction" can make "the people self-transformed", "good quiet" can make "the people self-righteous", "nothing" can make "the people self-enriched", and "no desire" can make "the people self-simple". In order to achieve "rule by inaction", he tried to return to the ancient times of "small countries and widows", with equipment without use, with boats and vehicles without riding, with armor soldiers without fighting, abolishing writing, still using knotted ropes to remember, countries can be seen from each other, chickens and dogs can be heard by each other, and people do not interact with each other until they die of old age.
2] Taoist school.
Yang Zhu "for me". Yang Zhu, also known as Yangziju or Yangsheng, a native of Wei, was probably born after Mozi and before Mencius. His main doctrine is "for me", which is the opposite of Mozi's idea of "love and love", which was also criticized by Mencius. According to Mencius, Yang Zhu advocated "for me" and did not even "pluck a hair and benefit the world". In fact, Yang Zhu advocated that neither "the slightest loss benefit the world", nor "the whole world", so that "the world governs".
Columns are "noble and empty". Liezi was named Yukou, a famous Taoist in the early Warring States period, born after Yang Zhu and before Zhuangzi. Zheng Guoren. He inherited and developed the doctrine of Yang Zhu, and became the predecessor of Zhuangzi, and the first master of Taoism to advocate the "rule of the Yellow Emperor". Liezi not only theoretically expounded his Taoist doctrine, but also practiced his Taoist cultivation. "Liezi": Liezi claimed to have learned from his teachers and friends, and after nine years, "the heart is condensed and released, the flesh and bones are melted, and I don't feel that the form is leaning on, and the foot is walking, and the wind is like a dry shell of a wood leaf, and I don't know that the wind rides my evil?
3] Shoko.
Zhuangzi, named Zhou, was a native of Song Guomeng (now northeast of Shangqiu, Henan). In his hometown, he worked as a small official who managed the lacquer garden, and once traveled with Wei Xianghuishi, refused the employment of King Chuwei, and lived a reclusive life. The age of life may be slightly later than that of Mencius. Of the 33 existing Zhuangzi, it is generally believed that the seven inner chapters were written by Zhuang Zhou, and the outer and miscellaneous chapters may have the works of his disciples or descendants.
Zhuangzi believes that the "Tao", which is the root of all things in the universe, is a kind of yin and yang qi, and that there was nothing in the world, and later the "Tao" derived heaven and earth, emperors, and all things, and true and false, right and wrong. "Yes and there, they are also, they are also one and they are wrong, and this is also one and one is wrong. In Zhuangzi's view, it is impossible to decide right and wrong because there is no objective, common standard.
In order to escape from reality, Zhuangzi advocated the pursuit of individual spiritual freedom. He believes that the spiritual unfreedom of ordinary people is due to "self-being", and that they must achieve "selflessness", "namelessness", and "meritlessness". You should be content with the arrangement of fate, and you will not be distressed. For gains and losses, we should be content with nothing, and we will not feel lost. "Heaven and earth are born together with me, and all things are one with me" to obtain absolute spiritual freedom.
His most famous words are: "My life has an end, and learning has no end, and there is no end to it, and there is no end to it!"
Zhuangzi's attitude to life and his writings have influenced almost all scholars in China.
4] Huang Lao School.
The Huang Lao School was born in the middle of the Warring States period and was popular in Qi, Han, Zhao and other countries. In the name of the Yellow Emperor, it absorbed the ideas of "emptiness and quietness" in the philosophy of "Lao Tzu" and the reversal of the extreme, forming an important school of thought. The Legalist Shen Buxian in the middle of the Warring States Period and the Legalist Han Fei in the late Warring States Period both accepted the ideas of the Huang Lao School and gave play to them. The political ideas of this school were adopted by the rulers of the early Han Dynasty. At the beginning of the Han Dynasty, when Cao Shen was the prime minister of Qi, he invited the famous Huang old scholar Gai Gong to be his "teacher" and implemented the policy of "pure and inaction, resting with the people"; In 1973, among the silk books unearthed from the Mawangdui Han Tomb in Changsha, there were four kinds of Yellow Emperor books written in front of the second volume of "Laozi", such as "Jingfa", "Ten Classics", "Title" and "Daoyuan", which were the representative works of the Huang Lao School in the middle of the Warring States Period.
The political goal of the book "Jing Fa" is to achieve the "security", "strength", "hegemony" and "king" of the country. The "king" is its highest political goal, that is, to build a unified dynasty. It advocates rewarding the people with "virtue" and striving to "make the best use of the people's strength", and at the same time calls for "saving the people's strength to make it" and "saving the people's endowment, not taking away the people's time". It also advocates the selection and training of the armed forces and strives to "defeat a strong enemy." At the same time, it is necessary to pay attention to the justice of the war, to attach importance to the policy of dealing with the people of the enemy country, and that the target of the crusade must "deserve to die for the crime" and oppose the destruction of the country and "benefit its wealth and wife and children." It places more emphasis on the rule of law, advocating "being honest and selfless and rewarding and punishing the faithful", and opposing "wanton killing and killing the virtuous" and "killing without guilt".
The "Jing Fa" distinguishes the relationship between the monarch and the subject into six types of "shun" and "reverse", which is a visualization of the centralized feudal ruling system. It also advocates the use of the method of examining the "form name" to identify and eliminate the bad guys, that is, using the "name" prescribed by the law to evaluate the "shape" of the subordinates, to judge the obedience and disobedience of the subordinates, and to punish them with rewards and punishments of life and death, so as to strengthen the centralization of power.
3. Legalism.
1] "The Book of Shang Jun".
This is the theoretical work of the Shang Dynasty school. A progressive view of history, strengthening the rule of law, rewarding farming and warfare, and unifying the country.
2] Han Fei.
Han Fei is a Korean aristocrat, he and Li Si are both students of Xunzi, and they pay attention to the study of legalism. He has written many times to advise Han Wangan, but it has not been adopted. "For the sake of stuttering, you cannot speak, but you are good at writing." Qin Shi Huang read his books "Lonely Anger" and "Five Worms" and was very appreciative. In 234 BC, he sent an envoy to Qin for Han, and wrote to Qin Shi Huang to persuade him to attack Zhao first and slow down the defeat of Han, but he was slandered by Li Si and Yao Jia, and was forced to commit suicide by poisoning the following year. His political doctrine was basically adopted by Qin Shi Huang and Li Si.
Spells, spells, potentials. Han Fei compared the ruling experience of the Qin State with the six eastern countries, and believed that because of the "clear law" and "punishment must be", Qin made "loyal ministers advise" and "evil ministers stopped", so "the land is wide and the lord is respected", while the six eastern countries are the opposite, because "the ministers and friends of the party are more than Zhou to hide the right way, practice private songs, and cut the lord and the low." The reason why Qin has not yet been able to complete the unification of the imperial cause is because "the rule has not been completed".
Han Fei further compared the gains and losses of the three factions of "law", "technique" and "power" of the Legalists at that time, and believed that it was necessary to comprehensively adopt the advantages of the three factions in order to successfully complete the cause of unifying the emperor. The faction of Ren Law, represented by Wei Ying, focused on the formulation of legal provisions and the implementation of rewards and punishments. The school of use of art is represented by Shen Bu Harm, and focuses on the methods and means of selecting and appointing officials, supervising and assessing, rewarding and punishing, and controlling. The faction of the important power is represented by prudence, which focuses on maintaining and using the power and position of the monarch.
Unification. In order to realize the cause of reunifying the whole country, Han Fei formulated a series of Legalist policies based on his theory of "law", "technique", and "potential", which mainly included the following three points:
(1) Strengthen the centralization of the monarchy's power, cut off private forces, and select "magicians". Han Fei advocated that "things should be done in the Quartet, in the center." The saint insisted, and the Quartet followed. ”
(2) Take the law as the teaching, the officials as the teacher, and prohibit private learning. Han Fei believed that the "private learning" of the scholars and the rulers at that time were "two-minded". He referred to scholars (referring to Confucianism), talkers (strategists and lobbyists), sword-bearers (ranger assassins), and scholars (people who avoided farming and warfare and attached themselves to important ministers), and merchants and workers as the "five beetles".
(3) Reward and punish strictly, reward farming and warfare, and seek national prosperity and strength.
The above three points were precisely what Qin Shi Huang later tried to implement in the process of creating a unified country.
Law. Through his interpretation of Lao Tzu, Han Fei clarified his materialist view of nature. He believes that there is a difference between "Tao" and "Reason": "Tao" is the root of the occurrence and development of all things, and at the same time it is the fundamental general law of nature, while "Reason" is a special law used to distinguish the nature of things. Do things according to the rules and get twice the result with half the effort.
Han Fei advocated extreme authoritarianism. He believes that the relationship between people is based on mutual interests. Bureaucrats are hired by the monarch, which is equivalent to a commercial buying and selling relationship, so the country cannot be governed by love, benevolence, righteousness, wisdom, and ability. Han Fei advocated that the monarch does not have to be a sage, he believed that Yao, Shun and Ji and Ji and Su were all once-in-a-lifetime, and ordinary monarchs were inferior to Yao Shun and not as good as Ji Su. If you give up the law and magic and govern with your heart, Yao will not be able to govern a country. And a medium-sized monarch governs by law and magic, just like a clumsy craftsman who works according to the rules and sizes, which is foolproof.
Han Fei analyzed the problem from the standpoint of the supreme ruler and was an advocate of the policy of ignoring the people.
4. Mohist.
1] Sumiko.
Mozi's name is Zhai, a native of the Song Dynasty, or a native of the Lu Kingdom, born in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period. According to Sun Zhirang's research, he was born and died between 468 BC and 376 BC. He once called himself a "slut", which shows that he was born poor. He lived a very frugal life, and the so-called "eating by measuring his stomach, tailoring his clothes" was different from Confucius's attitude of "not getting tired of eating fine, and not getting tired of being fine". He traveled far and wide in order to carry out his ideas. Once, in order to stop Chu from attacking Song, he set out from Qi and walked for ten days and ten nights to reach the Chu capital. However, he has risen to the rank of "scholar", claiming that "there is no king above, and there is no difficulty for cultivators".
Mozi's students lived in similar conditions to Mozi himself, eating quinoa soup, wearing short brown clothes, and wearing shoes made of hemp or wood, and their lives were similar to those of ordinary handicraft workers and peasants at that time.
2] Mojia.
Those who believed in the Mozi doctrine were called Mozi, and they were an organized group. Its supreme leader is called Juzizi. The position of Juzi is passed down by the predecessor of Juzi to the sages he recognizes. They have strict discipline, and all ink masters have to obey the command of Juzi. They also have a certain law, "the law of the ink, the murderer dies, and the wounder is punished." They were also good at defensive warfare, and when Mozi stopped Chu from attacking the Song Dynasty, Yu Slippery once brought 300 people and defensive weapons to guard the city of the Song Kingdom. They are also very brave, and it is said that the ink can make "go to the fire and die".
3] "Sumiko".
Mozi's ideas are not outdated today.
First, love. Those who are powerful should use their strength to help others, those who have wealth should use their wealth to divide people, and those who have Tao should use Taoism to teach people, so that "the hungry can be fed, the cold can be clothed, the laborers can be rested, and the disorderly can be cured."
Second, Shangxian. Select talented and virtuous men to govern the country. He advocated that "there should be no distinction between rich and poor, noble and low, distant and distant", and "although those who are in agriculture and industry, if they have the ability, they will be lifted".
Third, Shang Tong. Unified thinking, unified rules. "Whatever is above, it must be".
Fourth, non-offensive. Against war.
Fifth, saving. Oppose the music of Confucianism, bury and mourn for a long time, and work the people and lose money.
5. Yin-Yang Family.
1] The Five Elements Doctrine.
Zou Yan (c. 305-240 B.C.), a representative figure of the Warring States Period, "deeply observed the news of yin and yang, and made strange changes", and constructed a huge system including astronomy, geography, and history, but most of the materials have been lost, and what has been preserved is mainly his historical theory. He used the winning relationship of the five virtues of earth, wood, metal, fire, and water to explain the change of dynasty. Each dynasty represents a virtue, and when a dynasty declines, it is replaced by a new dynasty that represents another virtue. Each virtue has a corresponding color: the soil is still yellow, the wood is still green, the gold is still white, the fire is still red, and the water is still black. On the one hand, this theory affirms that the change of dynasty is an irresistible law and provides a theoretical basis for overthrowing the old regime and establishing a new regime; on the other hand, it holds that the change of dynasty is only due to the different colors it admires, and the specific measures are different and that it is going on in cycles and does not advance; at the same time, it is a mysterious theory of historical cycles that all these changes are attributed to heaven.
Zou Yan believes that the "China" mentioned by Confucianism is only one-eighttieth of the world. In China, his name is "Chixian Shenzhou". Chixian Shenzhou has its own Kyushu, which is the Kyushu mentioned in "Yu Gong". There are eight states that are equivalent to the size of Chixian Shenzhou, which is the Great Kyushu. Every major state is surrounded by the sea. Great Kyushu is surrounded by the Yinghai Sea. Beyond that is the edge of heaven and earth.
2] The doctrine of yin and yang.
In nature, the sky is yang and the earth is yin. In human beings, men are yang and women are yin. In temperament, rigidity is yang, softness is yin. Later, it was abstracted, and the yin and yang were regarded as the two basic elements that promote the generation and change of the universe, so that the things that govern everything were mystified. The theory of yin and yang originated very early. "Zhou Yi" is a special book that explains social phenomena with yin and yang, not a one-person work at one time, and finally completed a book or after the middle of the Warring States period.
3] The Five Elements of Yin and Yang.
The combination of the two doctrines to explore the law is the "Yellow Emperor's Neijing".
6. Notable house.
In the middle of the Warring States period, a trend of thought emerged in the debate of names, and a group of thinkers debated around the issue of name and reality, and they were called discerners and famous scholars. The main issue discussed, that is, the so-called "debate between 'Jianbai' and 'similarity and difference'", was mainly represented by Hui Shi and Gongsun Long.
Equivalent to the current problem of logic.
7. Farmhouse.
During the Warring States Period, special attention was paid to agriculture, and the basic theories of agriculture belonged to the category of science. However, what farmers want to explain is that agriculture is the lifeblood of the country's survival and development.
8. Miscellaneous.
The "Lü's Spring and Autumn Period" compiled by Lü Buwei is the main representative.
1] Lü Buwei.
Lü Buwei was originally a wealthy businessman, because he had helped Zi Chu, who was hostage in Zhao State, to become his heir, and after Zi Chu was the queen of Zhuangxiang, he was named the Marquis of Wenxin and appointed as the prime minister. King Zhuangxiang died, and Qin Wangzheng (Qin Shi Huang) respected Lü Buwei as his middle father, appointed Xiangguo, and was in charge of Qin's state affairs. In the second year after Qin Shi Huang came into power, that is, in the tenth year of Qin Shi Huang, he was relieved of his post as prime minister, and then ordered him to move to Shu. Lu saw that he had lost his trust and was afraid that the king of Qin would harm him, so he committed suicide by drinking.
In the later part of his reign, before Qin Shi Huang came into power, Lü Buwei "made his guests write and hear, thinking that there were eight lectures, six treatises, and twelve epochs, and more than 200,000 words." In the sixth year of Qin Shi Huang, he wrote "Lü's Spring and Autumn". After the book is completed, the book "Buxianyang City Gate, hanging a thousand gold on it, extending the princes and travelers and guests have the ability to increase and lose a word to give a thousand gold." ”
2] "Lü's Spring and Autumn".
Advocating the unity of government decrees and culture reflects its guiding ideology of bringing together the strengths of various schools of thought to form a unified ideological system. From the point of view of content, "Lü's Spring and Autumn Period" selectively selectively collects the pre-Qin culture after strict screening, and most of the excellent cultural heritage it absorbs is the strong vitality of the pre-Qin culture.
Lü's Spring and Autumn has always been regarded as a miscellaneous school, and its ideas are not accepted by the people, and its attempt to integrate various schools of thought has not succeeded, but it shows the historical trend of cultural and academic division to unification.
9. Zonghengjia.
"Warring States Policy" is the crystallization of the practice of the Zongheng family, but it has not been refined into a theory.
The representative figures are Su Qin and Zhang Yi, with their three-inch tongues, they say that they are moving and rich.
10. Novelist.
Make sense through storytelling. It belongs to the category of literature.
11. Soldiers.
Ancient scholars did not include the military family in the hundred schools of thought. However, when modern scholars compiled the "Zhuzi Collection", they included "The Art of War".
1] Sun Wu.
Sun Wu, a native of the late Spring and Autumn Period and a descendant of the Qi Guotian clan, came to Wu to help Wu reform and become strong, and was reused by King Wu. At that time, the state of Wu "broke strong Chu in the west, entered Ying, Qi Jin in the north, famous princes, grandson and powerful Yan". He is the author of thirteen chapters of "The Art of War".
2] The Art of War.
Sun Wu summed up the experience of the wars in the late Spring and Autumn period and before, and created a military theory that met the needs of the times. There are five main points:
(1) Take the "Tao" of "making the people agree with the superiors" as the primary factor in determining the victory or defeat of the war. It is necessary to make the people agree with the will of the king, so that they can be born and die for the king.
(2) Regard "knowing one's opponent and knowing oneself" as a prerequisite for correctly guiding war.
(3) In terms of operational guidance, the emphasis on "inflicting harm on people but not on others" means relying on subjective efforts to gain the initiative in war and being good at mobilizing the enemy without being mobilized by the enemy.
(4) In terms of operational guidance, he also advocated that "we should divide the enemy from the enemy," that is, we should concentrate superior forces and strike at the scattered enemy.
(5) In terms of operational guidance, it is more advocated that "victory should be won by the enemy," that is, flexible tactics should be adopted in order to win victory in light of changes in the enemy's situation.
Military strategists of the Warring States period often used the theories of the Art of War to command battles. However, his essence was to "go to the army to fight and strategize" and "surrender without a fight," and he paid more attention to the role of strategy and tactics.
3] Sun Bin.
In the past, they all thought that Sima Qian made a mistake and made two grandsons, because Sun Bin's art of war was lost. Later, from the Han tomb of Yinque Mountain in Linyi, the bamboo slips of "The Art of War of Sun Funeral" were found, with a total of 30 articles, more than 11,000 words, and some were incomplete.
Sun Bin, a native of Qi in the middle of the Warring States period and a descendant of Sun Wu, once studied the art of war with Pang Juan. Later, Pang Juan became a general in the Wei State, thinking that his talent was inferior to Sun Bin, so he deceived him to the Wei State, and sentenced him to death (removing the kneecaps) and put him under house arrest. Sun Bin later secretly returned to Qi with the help of Qi envoys, and was appointed as a military advisor by King Qi Wei due to the recommendation of Qi general Tian Ji. He assisted Tian Ji in several victorious battles, among which the Battle of Guiling and the Battle of Maling are the most famous.
Sun Bin further summed up the experience of warfare before the middle of the Warring States period and put forward many valuable operational guiding ideologies and principles. There are five main points:
(1) It developed the "Dao" mentioned by Sun Wu and regarded the "Dao" as an objective law of war. He said: "There are five kinds of constant victory: winning the autocracy of the lord (the commander has full command power), winning, knowing and winning, winning the public (winning the support of the masses), winning, and winning the left and right (the generals work together) to win; and measuring the enemy's danger (correctly judging the enemy's situation and estimating the danger of the terrain), and winning." ”
(2) He developed Sun Wu's theory of "we are the only one and divide the enemy" and put forward the tactics of defeating the many with the outnumbered and the strong with the weak. Employing various methods to make the enemy proud, fatigued, confused, and distracted by force, and then "striking at him with all his might" is to concentrate superior forces and annihilate the enemy individually.
(3) Sun Wu's theory of "Ren Shi" was developed, emphasizing the creation of a favorable combat situation.
(4) Advocate the strategy of "attacking but not defending".
(5) Pay attention to the enterprising of cities and towns and the use of formations.
The progress of military theory has provided theoretical guidance for the decisive victory in large-scale wars and accelerated the process of reunification.