Science knows no borders and no gender. Women's world is not only gorgeous and practical, but also truth.
Science was of no country and of no sex. The sphere of woman embraces not only the beautiful and the useful, but the true.
Written by | Veronica
Retired American petroleum geologist Raymond P. Sorenson was obsessed with pre-American Civil War technical books. One day in 2010, while flipping through the 1857 Annual of Scientific Discovery, a paper caught his eye — as early as 1856, the authors had predictably linked the heat-absorbing capacity of carbon dioxide to climate change. Three years later, the Irish physicist John Tyndall (1820-1893) discovered the phenomenon of different gases absorbing heat under longwave infrared radiation , which is believed to confirm the correlation between the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and what later became known as the greenhouse effect.
Tindal is seen as a pioneer of modern climate science, while the unknown author, Eunice Newton Foote (1819-1888), is buried in the dust of history.
Sorensen soon realized that his inadvertent discovery would rewrite the history of a discipline. In January 2011, Sorensen published an article[1] describing his findings affirming Furt's academic priorities on carbon dioxide and climate warming.
At this point, Eunice Foote, who had been silent for more than a century, and her pioneering research finally surfaced.
Figure 1. The Annals of Scientific Discovery is a series of books compiled by the American economist David Ames Wells (1828-1898), which contains many important scientific research documents and covers a wide range of fields. Eunice's paper was included in the 1857 volume. | Source: Biodiversity Heritage Library
Pioneers, like shooting stars
In the early morning of August 23, 1856, hundreds of important researchers from the American scientific community gathered in Albany, New York, New York, to attend the annual meeting of the Eighth American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) to exchange their research results and research interests.
At the meeting, the then highly respected Joseph Henry (1797-1878) presented a scientific paper written by a woman. The physicist, known for his unit of inductance, Henry (H), is considered one of America's greatest scientists after Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790).
Before reading the paper, Henry added an opening remark: "Science knows no borders and no gender. Women's world is not only gorgeous and practical, but also truth. ”（Science was of no country and of no sex. The sphere of woman embraces not only the beautiful and the useful, but the true.)[2] This phrase exists only in the handwritten records of the meeting stenographers and has been restored in later generations.
Figure 2. In the 2018 short film Eunice, Eunice (right) sits offstage watching Henry read out her research on stage. | Image source: Youtube
This is the first public appearance of Eunice's paper. The paper, entitled "Circumstances affecting the heat of the sun's rays"[3], is a two-page short and concise paper. Without professional experimental equipment, Eunice built her scientific world using only a "good potency" air pump, four mercury thermometers, and two glass cylinders about 10 cm in diameter and 76 cm long.
Eunice uses an air pump to extract the gas from one glass cylinder and pump it into another glass cylinder, making the gas in one cylinder thinner and the gas density in the other cylinder relatively larger. The two cylinders are equipped with thermometers in each of them. After the two glass cylinders are left in the shade to reach the same temperature, then transfer to the sun and observe the temperature every 2 to 3 minutes. Eunice repeated this temperature measurement process with dry air dehydrated by calcium chloride (CaCl2), saturated moist air, ordinary air, hydrogen (H2), oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2).
From the observed data, Eunice came to three conclusions:
As the density increases, the ability of the gas to absorb the heat of sunlight increases, and vice versa;
Moist air has a stronger ability to absorb the heat of sunlight than dry air
Gases containing carbon dioxide heat up most often under sunlight and require the longest cooling time after moving to a cool place.
Figure 4. The data recorded in Eunice's 1856 paper is presented in modern chart form. The plotter calculated this graph by logarithmic fitting the gas warming process recorded by Eunice and using the difference between the temperature values at the 4th, 5th, and 6th time points of each gas warming fitting function and the temperature values at the corresponding time points of the ordinary air warming fitting function (in degrees Celsius) as the ordinate coordinates. | The Royal Society Notes and Records[4]
Eunice's experiments were well-designed and well-concluded, but more importantly, in the mid-19th century, before the public began to pay attention to climate change, Eunice linked her observed endothermic characteristics of carbon dioxide to global climate change with a sense of foresight. She concludes the paper by reasoning that if the proportion of carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere increases over a period of time, global temperatures will also rise. （An atmosphere of that gas would give to our earth a high temperature; and if as some suppose, at one period of its history the air had mixed with it a larger proportion than at present, an increased temperature from its own action as well as from increased weight must have necessarily resulted.）
However, the paper was not included in the AAAS annual proceedings — it stands to reason that all papers presented at the annual meeting should be included. Its full version was published in the American Journal of Science and Arts in 1856 under the title "Eunice Foote" (Figure 3). Subsequently, scientific americans [5] (1856), the New York Daily Tribune [6] (1856), and other magazines published summaries of Eunice's research. The only two European abstracts omit her direct conclusions about the impact of carbon dioxide on the climate, and the abstract in Edinburgh's New Philosophy magazine even labels the author as Mrs. Elisha Fut. Elisha Foote, Elisha is Eunice's husband).
Even Henry, who was most likely to help her, was limited by his field of study (mainly electromagnetism) and did not fully realize the significance of this article. Henry acknowledged the value of Eunice's research, but at the time he thought it was "very difficult to deeply analyze the significance of the results of these experiments." （Although the experiments were interesting and valuable, there were many difficulties encompassing any attempt to interpret their significance. By Joseph Henry）[7]
Figure 3. Eunice's paper "Environmental Conditions Affecting the Thermal Energy of The Sun's Rays" | Source:
https://archive.org/details/mobot31753002152491/page/381/mode/2up?view=theater
Eunice Furt's research is like a meteor that disappears from people's vision after a moment of glittering brilliance. Fortunately, she published a complete paper, which made it possible to trace and excavate later generations. With a "pure luck", Sorensen finally brought the legendary woman back into the public eye and the history of science.
The father of modern climate science in the eyes of posterity
When we look back at this history of science about the greenhouse effect, the Irish physicist John Tindall is a key figure that cannot be circumvented.
Unlike Eunice's status as an "amateur science enthusiast", Dindal, who received his ph.D. from the University of Marburg in Germany, has close contacts with the most outstanding experimental physicists of our time and uses extremely sophisticated experimental instruments. His most famous contribution was the discovery in 1869 of the phenomenon of dispersion particles scattered by light passing through colloids, named the "Tyndall effect".
By the 1850s , Tindal had become famous for his research on magnetism , and the structure and motion of glaciers , [10]. After reading Macedonio Melloni's study of thermal radiation,[11] Tyndal decided to use gases instead of liquids and solids to test the absorption of radiation by gases. He firmly believed that matter is made of molecules and atoms, and believed that the chemical composition (molecular structure) of matter also affects the radiation-absorption process.
Tyndal first measured the warming of "simple gases" such as hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen (now we know that the gas element) warms up under long-wave infrared radiation, but the results are not ideal. Only when more complex gas molecules such as water vapor, carbon dioxide and methane were measured did he observe significant warming. Realizing the significance of this experimental result, Tyndal quickly reported his research to the Royal Society in the form of an outline that year (1859) and published the paper in the Proceedings of the Royal Society in 1861. This discovery became the theoretical basis for the greenhouse effect, and Tindall himself was later hailed as the "father of climate science" (the father of climate science).
Figure 5. Schematic diagram of Thermoelectric Radiation Experimental Apparatus by Tindal. | Credit: Royal Institution of the Great Britain
There are two main differences between Tindal and Eunice's experimental designs,[13] one is that Eunice uses full-spectrum sunlight radiation to heat gases, while Tindal's heating source is the Leslie cube filled with boiling water, a device that can generate long-wave infrared radiation. Second, Tindal used his own invention of differential spectrometers to sensitively and accurately measure differences in heat absorption, while Eunice's experimental setup was relatively simple and primitive. It is worth noting, however, that unlike Eunice, Tindal himself was not interested in climate change, and never mentioned in his 1859 paper the possible impact of the discovery on global climate change.
Physicist John Leslie invented the Leslie cube (left) in 1804. The cube has four surfaces perpendicular to the ground, three of which are coated with a layer of gold, silver and copper, and the other side is covered with varnish of isinglass. When the cube is filled with boiling water, the temperature detector (right) detects heat emission from the muscovite plane significantly stronger than the other three sides. | Image source: Wikipedia
Did Tindal know about Eunice's research before the experiment? This has become a historical case. There are many controversies related to this, and the truth is unknown. [8] Some scholars have questioned that Tindal's paper on color blindness was published in the same journal as Eunice's study, so it is highly likely that he read her paper. Roland Jackson, A biographer of Tyndall, claimed that Tyndal himself may have been sexist, arguing that female scientists do not have the imagination and ability to explore as much as men. At the same time, however, Jackson argued that with Dindal's character and qualities, it was impossible to commit academic misconduct; not to mention that in the mid-19th century, international communication was poor, intercontinental exchanges were even more scarce, and academic achievements could only be spread to other sides of the ocean, basically relying on personal social relationships. And for female science amateurs like Eunice, who has limited connections, this seems difficult to climb to the sky.
Eunice is unique, precious, a flower that could have bloomed even more brilliantly. As scientific American, published in September 1856, commented, Eunice's research "amply demonstrates the creativity and rigor with which women study any discipline".
The columns of the Scientific American have been oftentimes graced with articles on scientific subjects, by ladies, which would do honor to men of the highest scientific reputation; and the experiments of Mrs. Foot afford abundant evidence of the ability of woman to investigate any subject with originality and precision.
It is particularly unfortunate that the historical Eunice has not been able to continue her research and further expand her thinking on climate change. The spark of ideas that women contribute to opening up modern climate science has been extinguished because of the contempt and indifference of the environment to women, because of the unfavorable conditions in which women's scientific research is located. Today, while reflecting on the unfair treatment suffered by female researchers, how to provide support and assistance to the female researchers around us may be more worthy of consideration. After all, the past can no longer be changed, and the future is still infinitely possible.
What kind of soil gives birth to the "flower of the greenhouse effect"?
In the early 19th century, Western women began to have access to higher education, which was originally monopolized by men, but it was not until the end of the 19th century that women's higher education developed on a large scale (see | Coeducational Schools, A Century of Struggle). Where have the women scientists gone"). Throughout the 19th century, only 3,400 papers were written by women researchers, less than 1 percent of the total number of papers published. Of the 3,400 papers, 1,400 were written by American women scientists, most of which belonged to botany, zoology and other life sciences, and only 16 papers in the field of physics. Of the 16 papers, only two were published before 1889, all written by Eunice Foote.
What kind of growing environment has created such a sparkling woman?
The story begins on a farm in Connecticut, USA. Born in 1819, Eunice Newton was the son of a distant relative of the famous Isaac Newton (1643-1727). But apart from this aura, they are just an ordinary peasant family.
At the age of 17, Eunice enrolled at Troy Female Seminary, New York. Known as the "mecca for women" (mecca, the holy land of Islam), the college was founded in 1824 by feminist Emma Willard and was the first girls' preparatory school in the United States. Troy Women's Seminary shared teaching facilities with the neighboring Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute and had the only two chemistry laboratories in the world at the time dedicated to teaching. It was here that Eunice acquired experimental skills and learned how to conceive and execute experimental subjects.
It is worth mentioning amos Eaton (1776-1842), the founder of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. Eaton is a lawyer, but he has loved nature since childhood, and has been practicing as a lawyer while also engaging in botanical research. He was sentenced to life in prison for his involvement in land speculation and suspected fraud, but was fortunately pardoned after serving his 5th year in prison. After his release from prison, he continued to study botany, geology, chemistry, compiling botanical dictionaries, giving lectures, co-founding schools... [16] He became a legendary figure in promoting modern pedagogical reform. He believed that men and women should have equal access to scientific research and education, and to that end he carefully mentored a teacher at the Trojan Women's Seminary. The teacher designed an all-encompassing research curriculum for female students, and Eunice was one of the beneficiaries.
Figure 7. Wesleyan Chapel in Seneca Falls. From July 19 to 20, 1848, the first Women's Rights Congress in the United States was held here. | Image source: Getty images
In addition, one of Eunice's neighbors also had a profound influence on her—she was the famous Elizabeth Cady Stanton (1815-1902), one of the pioneering leaders of the feminist movement in the United States. In 1848, the first women's rights congress led by Stanton was held in Seneca Falls, New York, of which Eunice was one of the participants. The Conference adopted the Declaration of Sentiments, which called for women to have equal rights with men in higher education, in the working environment and in married life. Eunice was also involved in the publication of the minutes.
Figure 8: Signed page of the Declaration of Emotions. Eunice Foote's name is in row 1, row 5, and her husband,Elisha Foote's name is in row 4 of column 1 in the men's section. | Source: Library of Congress, National American Woman Suffrage Association Collection
When one looks back at the Emotional Manifesto, one finds that in addition to Eunice herself, the signature of her husband, Elisha Foote, is on top. A judge, inventor and mathematician, Elisha was also a champion of the feminist movement and one of the few male attendees to eventually sign the Declaration of Emotions. As a husband, Eliza became one of Eunice's most important supporters of her subsequent research efforts. He treated her as an equal individual and encouraged Eunice to do the scientific research she loved; he introduced joseph Henry to her, and as a member of AAAS, he secured the opportunity to appear at conferences for his wife's research. It is conceivable how much strength Elisha's unwavering support has brought to Eunice.
Figure 9. Photo of Eunice's husband, Eliza Furt. Eunice herself did not leave public footage. From the written records, it is known that she was petite, with a goose egg face, dark brown hair, and gray-blue eyes. | Image source: Wikipedia
Liz Foote, a PhD student in environmental and behavioral science, is a distant relative of Eliza Fuote. At the 2018 AAAS conference, Leeds learned of Eunice's existence by chance and participated in a research project on Eunice. Leeds says:
"As a 19th-century woman, Eunice's career options were very limited. Given the plight she faced, Eunice's scientific achievements are admirable and should inspire us all. ”（But as a woman in the 1800s her professional options were nevertheless limited. To accomplish what she did, despite the realities of her time, is very impressive and should inspire anyone.）[18]
if...... Will the world be different today?
In 1856, Eunice's research on the absorption of sunlight by different gases was met with a mediocre response, and predictions about climate change were even more unrecognized. The following year, Eunice published a paper on the relationship between fluctuations in atmospheric pressure and changes in charge. According to the Royal Society's Catalogue of Scientific Papers (1800-1900), this was Eunice's last paper in the field of physics.
If the original scientific community had taken this research seriously, and received enough resources and encouragement from the surroundings, Eunice might have thought of using long-wave infrared radiation instead of plain and primitive solar heating. With the help of advanced instrumentation and standardized laboratories, Eunice's next experiment should be more scientifically designed, sophisticated, and quantitative results more precise, and her conjecture about climate change may be further confirmed.
While the United States missed Eunice, it also missed the opportunity to take the lead in developing modern climate science. In the late 1860s, the Second Industrial Revolution began, and mankind entered the "electric age". At that time, various scientific and technological inventions in the United States flourished, accelerating to catch up with and surpass the old capitalist countries represented by britain. However, compared with applied research, basic research is more neglected. In the mid-19th century, where Eunice was, the Development of the American physics community was far from that of Europe. Even by the 1870s, fewer than 75 people in the United States called themselves "physicists," and before that, only Benjamin Franklin and Joseph Henry were famous abroad. As Americans explored and explored their homeland, natural history research flourished, but natural science research struggled.
If Eunice's research had been valued in the United States and continental Europe, it might have been an opportunity for the development of climate science in the United States. Just like Liu Xiang's influence on Chinese athletics, the best will always attract the attention of the people in this field, and this attention will bring policy support and resource tilt. The 1850s are often seen by modern climate change researchers as the starting point for industrialization, in other words, when human activities have not yet had an impact on climate change. Tree ring growth shows that temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere rose significantly in the 1860s[17] due to heavy burning of fossil fuels and deforestation). If the United States had seized the opportunity of climate science at that time, humanity might have been able to respond quickly to climate change during this period.
Human understanding of the greenhouse effect began in 1827 with the idea that the Earth's atmosphere has a thermal insulation effect proposed by the mathematician Joseph Fourier (1768-1830). Fourier believed that if the atmosphere could not conserve heat, the temperature on the Earth's surface should be much lower than it really was, based on the Earth's volume and earth-day distance. The Eunice and Tindal study specifically answered the question of "which atmospheric components contribute to this insulation?" It is important to note that what they found was the absorption of thermal radiation by a small mass of gases of basic isothermia, which is not the same thing as what is now called irradiation-heating of the entire atmosphere. To generalize the results of this ideal experiment to the entire atmosphere, a lot of theoretical knowledge is needed to be developed later.
Specifically, with the development of electromagnetism, scientists gradually formed a basic understanding of radiation, established the theory of atmospheric radiation transmission, and physicists were able to generalize simple radiation heating in a small area to the real atmosphere with very complex temperature layers. At this point, "an increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration can lead to an increase in near-surface temperatures" was confirmed. In the early 1960s, measurements by american meteorologist Charles David Keeling (1928–2005) showed rapid increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations. The greenhouse effect truly became a meaningful scientific question when the conclusion that an increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations can lead to an increase in near-surface temperatures was linked to the fact that atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations were rising rapidly and "global warming" was associated. Eunice's study is the starting point of the greenhouse effect argument chain. If humans had anticipated that human activities would affect the climate a few years earlier, perhaps the earth's ecological environment today would have had more respite.
Regrettably, Eunice's silence is only part of a vast narrative of women being denied equal rights in scientific institutions. In 2018, the University of California, Santa Barbara held a symposium on the theme of "Science Knows No Gender" to commemorate Eunice Foote's outstanding contributions. Leila Carvalho, a professor of meteorology at the university, said: "I can't help but wonder how many 'Eunice Futs' are waiting for us to discover? How many more scientific achievements have been buried in history because of social pressures brought about by gender, ethnicity or ethnicity? ”
Figure 10. In the 2018 short film Eunice, Eunice, played by British actress Helen Jessica Liggat, conducts experiments in rudimentary conditions in intricate Victorian dresses. | Image source: Youtube
By shutting women out, science will lose half of its power. Eunice proved that women have as much potential as men in the field of scientific research, which is an inspiration to countless female researchers after her. Today, they can not be limited by the status of "amateur science", get rid of the complicated skirt, and wear simple clothes to enter the temple of science. In the era in which Eunice lived, atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations were only 290 ppm (parts per million, parts per million). She probably didn't expect that in just over a century, this value would exceed 410 ppm. As stated in the 2019 Women's Connected Leadership Declaration on Climate Justice, in today's world of increasing global warming and climate change crisis, "to change all this, we need the strength of everyone." ”（To change everything，we need everyone.）[25]
Figure 11. The Women's Joint Leadership Declaration on Climate Justice is dedicated to supporting women around the world to speak up, act and lead in climate protection. | Image source: womenleadclimate.org
Thanks
Shi Wen, a graduate student in the Department of Earth System Sciences at Tsinghua University, has provided reference for the professional knowledge involved in this article, and would like to express his sincere gratitude.
bibliography
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[19] Mrs Elisha Foote (1858). On a new source of electrical excitation, Philosophy Magazine(15, 239–240).
[20] D. J. Kevles (2001). Physicists: the history of a scientific community in modern America. Harvard University Press, p. 7.
[21] Fleming, J R (1999). Joseph Fourier, the "greenhouse effect", and the quest for a universal theory of terrestrial temperatures. Endeavour. 23(2):72–75. doi:10.1016/s0160-9327(99)01210-7.
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[24] https://www.noaa.gov
[25] https://womenleadclimate.org
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