The Red Creek Incident on the island of Java in 1740 was a genocidal massacre perpetrated by Dutch colonists against chinese overseas Chinese and Ethnic Chinese in batavia. This is a story we are familiar with, but few people have noticed another aspect of the incident: when the Dutch slaughtered with knives, Chinese did not sit still, and the Red Creek Incident was only the beginning of the war in which the Chinese self-defense forces rose up against Dutch rule, which in Indonesian history was called the "Chinese War".
Modern Jakarta City
1. The Chinese Batavia
The migration of Chinese to the Indonesian archipelago began during the Han and Tang dynasties.
In 1619, Kuhn, the third governor of the Dutch East India Company, took advantage of the dispute between the British colonists and the Sultan of Banten to seize the area from the Sultan of Banten, who ruled the area of present-day Jakarta, which the Ming History called "Bite to Stay" and built a Western-style high wall to defend the city, Namely Batavia.
From the very beginning of the city, the Chinese participated in the construction of Batavia. In fact, when the Dutch besieged Banten, they hired Chinese as interpreters and negotiators.
Governor Kuhn saw clearly the power of the Chinese: the Chinese could bring in large numbers of Chinese merchant ships and prosperous trade: Moreover, the native Chinese in Indonesia controlled the channels of the pepper trade, and the Dutch had to rely on the Chinese to expand trade. At the same time, a large number of Chinese who could bear hardships and work were the main labor force for the Dutch East India Company to develop the colonies.
The Dutch tried their best to recruit Chinese from the Sultanate of Banten and all over Java, and Chinese merchants who had long been engaged in the Chinese pepper trade were attracted to Batavia, who served as Dutch contractors and tax collectors, responsible for recruiting laborers and craftsmen from China to build the city, and also provided bricks and wood for the construction of Batavia's houses and walls, and a large number of Chinese workers participated in the construction.
History of the Dutch conquest of Indonesia
Before the European colonists invaded Southeast Asia, there were two main types of Chinese immigrants in Southeast Asia: one was a large number of Chinese merchants in Fujian, Guangdong and other places, who were known for acting as middlemen. The other is an armed group of immigrants led by Chinese pirate bandits or political refugees who occupy the throne, exercise autonomy, and even establish self-defense forces.
As european colonial regimes continued to expand, trading ports continued to flourish, but small, independent Chinese kingdoms that were kingly eventually ceased to exist. The Chinese community, on the other hand, is the only group in Asia that can compete with Western colonizers in terms of organization and cultural traditions. The European colonists did need Chinese merchants and Chinese workers, but they would never allow political or military hostilities to exist. Because the Chinese rulers of the Ming and Qing dynasties ignored overseas Chinese, Chinese immigrants in Southeast Asia did become "merchants without empires."
When the Dutch came to Java, the Chinese there were mainly Hokkien, and they naturally became partners of the colonists. The most powerful merchant among them was appointed by the Dutch as the Chinese "Kapitan".
Kapitan was a Chinese leader appointed by the Dutch colonial authorities, not by the Chinese community. Unlike the Spaniards in the Philippines, the Dutch were not interested in converting the Chinese to Dutch Christianity, nor did they instill Dutch culture in the Chinese. The Chinese business elite was highly valued by the Dutch authorities mainly because of their ability to manage the local Chinese society and the ties they maintained with their hometowns through their personal prestige, charity, and wealth in their hands.
The Hokkiens living in Manila run a sailing trade from Xiamen to Acapulco, as Manila is a transit port on the route. Batavia's first Chinese, Kapidan Su Minggang, was a wealthy Fujian immigrant who had a close personal relationship with the Dutch governor Kuhn. The social status of Chinese businessmen thus seemed to have been improved, but in the eyes of ordinary Chinese people at that time, there was not much trust in this "official system".
The city of Batavia in the 17th century
In the 18th century, the scene of the appointment of the Chinese Kapitan in Semarang, Java, was as follows:
Whoever elects a Chinese as Kapitan must apply for details of his ancestral home, and Kapitan chooses to recruit relatives, friends, and dozens of people from the township. At that time, Helan came alone with a word, and Kapitan and everyone went out to greet him. And Lan Ren entered, stopped in the court, and Lu Li opened the word to read. Pointing up to the heavens and down to the clouds: "This man is handsome and intelligent, and he knows everything well, so why should he be pushed as Jia Bidan, Ru and other townspeople?" All the people should know, "Very beautiful and very good." "And Lan Ju shook hands with everyone as a ceremony, and everyone retreated, and Fang and Kabidan ascended to the hall hand in hand, and recounted the guests officiation." It envelops everyone like this.
("Island Yizhi" Qing: Wang Dahai)
The text reveals a disapproving meaning, which is a bit ridiculous.
Early European colonists relied heavily on the Chinese in every aspect of the economy: most importantly, engaging in trade between the colonies and China; obtaining wealth from the local area; and providing services to colonial cities.
At the beginning of the 18th century, Batavia traded more closely with China and became increasingly important to the Dutch. Batavia imported tea, gold and silverware, textiles, silk, ceramics, etc. from China, and exported spices, pepper, rattan, sandalwood, rhino horn, bird's nest and other items to China.
The Dutch first landed in 1596
The further improvement of Chinese life has attracted Chinese from other regions to leave their hometowns and go to Java, especially Batavia. Most of these people worked in sugar cane plantations and sugar mills run by Chinese on the outskirts of Batavia, and the land was leased by the government. In 1740, there were 2,500 Chinese households living in Batavia, including Chinese living outside the city, with a total of about 15,000 people. This number accounts for about 20% of the population of batavia, while there are only 1275 Europeans in batavia's walled cities.
The Chinese built temples in and around Batavia to worship the Land Gong (Fude ZhengShen) and Mazu (Tianhou), as well as various temples dedicated to the protectors of different trades. Chinese immigrants also brought various festivals and customs held according to the lunar calendar from China. A Dutchman's account of how the Chinese celebrated the Lunar New Year in Batavia in the early 18th century, the local Chinese happily held a large celebration with whites and local natives: "A mighty procession through the streets of Batavia, the parade of people holding hundreds of horses, boats, cars, fish and other different shapes of paper lanterns, and also vividly dancing a daunting snake [dragon]. ”
Frik, author of "History of the East Indonesian Archipelago", said: "If there were no Chinese in Bacheng, it would almost never exist. In 1685, a French mission to Siam passed through Batavia and stayed there for many days, and one of the French Jesuit missionaries later lamented: "Chinese industrious and wise, without their help they could not live comfortably,...... They can do anything in any industry. ”
In addition to doing business, most of the Chinese rely on craftsmanship to eat, open factories to squeeze sugar, open stores to sell goods, and can do anything. In the suburbs of Batavia and the Dutch-controlled coastal areas of Java, sugar mills were almost entirely controlled by the Chinese. All the factories or plantations run by white Europeans could not compete with the enterprises Chinese, resulting in the Dutch East India Company having to force Chinese sugar mills, plantations, wineries, etc. to sell at low prices and impose various high tax rates by executive order. The Dutch also gave the popular european bondage rights to the Chinese, and the Chinese tax merchants taxed the indigenous people on behalf of the Dutch colonists. The Dutch are simply lying on the Chinese and making money.
In fact, the insatiable Dutch colonists relied on various coercive administrative means to exploit Chinese enterprises, exploited the Chinese with harsh taxes and fees to maintain the operation of the colony, and the europeans lived in poverty and luxury.
The Dutch colonists were on their toes
2. The beginning of the Chinese war
Queen XVII of the Netherlands in Amsterdam admired the entrepreneurial spirit of the Chinese, but the Dutch colonists in Batavia continued to strengthen restrictions and persecution of overseas Chinese in order to ensure colonial rule, such as new overseas Chinese entering Batavia, if not approved by the colonial authorities, they were imprisoned for half a year and punished with hard labor. Overseas Chinese merchants must be approved and registered to stay ashore, sailors are not allowed to go ashore, and if sailors disappear, they will be punished by boat owners. The colonists always distrusted the Chinese, and while cooperating with Chinese immigrants and using Chinese power, they were always vigilant and guarded against the resistance of Chinese forces.
At the time, the Dutch colonists in Java had an extremely paradoxical sentiment: they both needed the Chinese and feared them at the same time. They knew very well that without Chinese merchants, without Chinese craftsmen, without Chinese laborers, they would have achieved nothing in the colonies. The European colonists were economically dependent on the Chinese, but culturally unwilling to understand the Chinese and knew nothing about them, resulting in a great sense of fear. In addition, the Dutch have always imposed heavy taxes on the Chinese and extorted arbitrarily, so they have always feared retaliation. The fear of the massive influx of "alien" races that exists deep within them has always lingered. It is this extreme fear of racist mentality that has led to large-scale anti-Chinese and massacres.
At that time, the Dutch houses in Batavia were crowded, the canals were turbid, and plagues often broke out. The outbreak of the plague in 1734 left the Dutch governor Dekker. Fan. Clone also died of illness. The Girion River runs through the city of Batavia, dividing the city into east and west districts, the east and west districts of which are Chinese, which the Dutch believe to be the health of the Chinese settlements that caused the plague, and strengthened the policy of restricting the entry of Chinese immigrants.
The new Dutch governor Adrian. Valknier was an unlearned, paranoid racist who in 1740 issued a pennissiebrieife regulation that the Chinese had to have a company-issued license system to walk on the road. On July 25, the Governor's Office issued a "kill or erase" order that all suspected Chinese, whether licensed or not, should be arrested and searched. If they are found to have no income or occupation, they should be repatriated to China or exiled to Ceylon (Sri Lanka), the plantations of the Cape of Good Hope, and the mines as coolies.
Overseas Chinese call the identity permit: "Check big characters." At that time, the Chinese living in the city had the jurisdiction of "Kabidan", which was somewhat organized and could obtain identity permits: outside the city, tens of thousands of Chinese people were usually unmanaged, only rich Chinese merchants were hiring them to work, and many of them were without licenses. Governor Valknier even issued an order: All Chinese dressed in black should be arrested. At that time, the clothes of ordinary Chinese were mainly black, and this order was very absurd.
The thirteenth Chinese "Kapitan" was called Lian Fuguang, who owned fourteen sugar factories. In 1738 he bribed the Dutch governor with a wagon of silver to obtain the title of "Kapitan". After he took office, he was nepotistic, used his power to seek privileges for himself and his relatives, and also bullied others to plunder the wealth of other Chinese businessmen, but he never fought for the rights and interests of the Chinese, and at this time he did not stand up for the interests of the Chinese to appeal to the Dutch.
Thus, Dutch policy resulted in thousands of Chinese, not only unemployed vagrants, but also their own traders and honest people forcibly arrested, loaded into ships, and carried to distant Ceylon and the Cape of Good Hope. In addition, the Dutch wantonly searched Chinese houses in the name of collecting weapons, tortured Chinese at will, and forcibly seized property. Officials of the Dutch East India Company took the opportunity to blackmail rich Chinese, saying that they wanted them to buy licenses with money, but in fact they were enriched. The Chinese outside the city no longer dared to enter the city, and the Chinese in Batavia did not dare to go out of the city, and the Dutch colony on the island of Java suddenly stopped trade and the market was depressed.
Map of batavia
The Chinese had been cornered, and gossip went viral, rumors that the captured Chinese had been shackled and tortured and killed. Some of the Chinese who had taken boats to Ceylon and South Africa to work as coolies fled back to Batavia, and according to them, the captured Chinese were thrown into the sea halfway. The Chinese people were extremely angry, and they were never willing to sit still, determined to cause trouble and seek survival in death.
More than 5,000 Chinese people inside and outside the city gathered at the Gandaliya Sugar Factory, elected Huang Ban as the leader, and armed themselves to prepare for self-defense against the wanton behavior of the Dutch. At this time, a traitor Lin Chu appeared, betraying his compatriots for the bounty of the Dutch, and the traitor Lin Chu informed the Dutch.
On 26 September 1740, Governor Valknier convened an emergency meeting of the East India House of Justice and authorized the members of the House to take action. On October 7, the fifth year of Qianlong (1740), the Chinese self-defense armed forces attacked in three ways, the first attack on the Dutch fort, the second way to attack the Dutch barracks, and Huang Ban personally led all the way to attack the eastern gate of Batavia, planning to attack the governor's palace in the north city after the confluence.
At this time, another Chinese army of about a few hundred people seized the Dutch East India Company's strongholds in Meester Comelis and Tanah Abang, killing 50 company soldiers. However, the other two Chinese armed forces that attacked the city of Batavia belonged to the other two groups, and because of the traitors' whistleblowing, the Dutch had already prepared, and after losing hundreds of people, they failed.
The main force of the Yellow Squad was also thwarted by the lack of weapons and firearms, and its attack on the East Gate was also frustrated.
The Dutch mobilized all their forces stationed in Batavia, 1,800 company soldiers, plus the colonial militia (schutterij), and 11 battalions of reserve soldiers, to launch a counterattack against the Chinese forces. At the same time, a strict curfew was imposed on the Chinese in the city, and the Chinese in the city were ordered to "if they are good people, do not go out." On October 8, the Dutch repelled the main Chinese armed force led by Huang Ban, who had moved to the south of the city, and Dutch artillery flattened the south gate. The Chinese attacked the Dutch camp at night and were defeated.
Due to the rudimentary weapons of the Chinese self-defense forces, after three days and nights of fierce fighting, more than 1,800 casualties were inflicted, and various attacks failed one after another. Huang Ban led the remnants to regroup near Xingang to join the Chinese from all over Java and organize a new offensive. On the 10th, the Chinese people with sticks, knives, forks and hoes fought to the death against the Dutch army that went out of the city to counterattack, and most of the Chinese armed forces were killed due to lack of firearms and poor strength. Huang Ban broke out and moved the remnants to the east of Java, accumulating strength for the time being.
While the siege was still going on, Governor Valknier met on Sunday morning with members of the East India Council and decided to wipe out the Chinese once and for all. The massacre began on October 8, when indians, European sailors, native coolies, slaves, and various rogue proletarians, who had been encouraged by the Dutch, first stormed the Chinese area and set fire to them, and the Dutch army began to loot and massacre the Chinese in the city. Soldiers shot down the Chinese who had fled to the roof, while the colonial militia on the west bank of the Zillion River shot and sank the Chinese who tried to flee. They killed every Chinese, men, women and children, even nursing babies, and the Wounded and Sick in the hospital were dragged out of the door in a frenzied and inhumane manner.
Modern Jakarta slums
Batavia was so full of blood that new place names appeared later, such as "Red Creek" (Angke), which was named after the red stream stained with Chinese blood at that time. There is a place called Rawa Bangke (meaning corpse swamp) in Gandongwei, or Jatinegara, which is named after the failure of the Chinese Self-Defense Army to fight and the large number of Chinese corpses floating in the swamp. Tanaa Pradesh means "red land" because the blood of the Chinese is soaked red in the dirt.
The "Kapidan" who had given the governor a cart of silver was even sealed at home at the time, and the governor of Valknier did not let him go. The journal of the Dutch East India Company, published in 1741, records the fate of the Lian Fuguang family.
In the afternoon, the Dutch East India Company's militia (company employees, belonging to the colonial militia) set out from their castles in a procession to the city and was ordered to surround the residence of Kapiten Nie Hoe Kong with cavalry troops. Fan. Captain Osten led the grenadiers into the position. Fan. Captain Osten dragged 2 cannons in a car with the aim of destroying the house of Lien Fu Guang Kapitan and all the Chinese houses in its vicinity and forcing them out of the house. The Dutch East India Company estimated that the Chinese would do so, and ordered their troops to take an offensive posture, ready to occupy the entire area. Simultaneous attacks were launched from the command headquarters (the artillery position in the city, located at about four o'clock in the Chinese houses) and from the direction of Reowa Malacca (the name of the street where the FuGuang family was located), and from the east bank of the Great River, forcing the Chinese to surrender out of the house, or they would be killed by the artillery fire. ”
After completely encircling the Chinese residential area, the forces of the Dutch East India Company launched a full-scale attack at 17:00 as planned. The report said: The artillery of the headquarters in the city simultaneously opened fire on the Chinese houses in the encirclement. The explosion of the flowering shell plunged the Chinese house into a sea of fire. Some Chinese trapped in the fire fled to avoid being burned alive, but were killed by oncoming bullets.
Even Fu Guang's home was Fan. Lieutenant Sukhtland's troops surrounded him all night, and even Fu guang could only fight with the beast, resisting the Dutch army with 50 slaves and his family, refusing to surrender. This was the only Chinese family in the city who insisted on resisting, and after a night of fierce fighting, the Lian family mansion was breached and burned down, and the Chinese New Year's Eve-year-old Lian Fuguang disguised himself as a woman in an attempt to break through, but was arrested in the street, beaten and thrown into the castle prison of the Dutch East India Company. He was sentenced to 25 years in prison and exiled to Ambon, where he died of illness five years later, leaving all eight of his children missing.
Two weeks later, on October 22, 1740, Dutch colonists ordered an end to the genocide. More than 10,000 Chinese people died in this incident, including 500 arrested and wounded and sick in hospitals, 500 seriously injured, more than 700 houses were destroyed, and countless property was looted. Some missionaries reported that the total number of Chinese victims, including those outside the city, was in the tens of thousands. The official report of the East India Company said that the Dutch and other Europeans, both military and civilian, carried out the catastrophe and massacre, and that the indigenous forces acted as accomplices and acted even more brutally and greedily.
Massacres in the city
3. Chinese War
Governor Valknier announced amnesty two weeks after the massacre, and only 3,431 Chinese remained around Batavia, including 1,442 merchants, 935 landowners and plantation gardeners, 728 sugar cane and forestry workers, and 236 carpenters and stonemasons, who did not participate in the subsequent Chinese uprising.
The first phase of the war:
The barbaric atrocities of the Dutch colonists provoked great anger among all Indonesian Chinese. Although the island of Java was controlled by the Dutch, there were several semi-independent Turkish sultanates in the eastern interior, and there were also many Chinese in the country. When Dutch colonists in central and eastern Java also began to massacre overseas Chinese everywhere, the Chinese in Jabala immediately gathered to fight back, and joined forces with the Chinese forces retreating from the outskirts of Batavia, repeatedly defeated the Dutch siege under the leadership of Huang Ban, and took advantage of the victory to invade South Pakistan.
The Tammy Chinese of Central Java gathered together, elected a "gentleman" (an unknown Chinese) as the leader, and revolted to defeat the Vanuaginal Dutch garrison.
The Chinese in Grobogan elected Mr. Ma Zhan and Xiao De as their leaders and gathered to arm themselves.
Indigenous people across Java also took the opportunity to rebel against the Dutch and fight alongside the Chinese. They quickly occupied the Dutch army's fortress of Zuana and besieged Semarang. The uprising soon spread throughout Java and spread to Cirebon and Breangan, because the main force fighting the Dutch was basically Chinese, and the war was directly known as the "Chinese War" in Indonesian history and the official report of the Dutch East India Company.
The Chinese swore revenge for their compatriots who died, and the Chinese and overseas Chinese throughout Java acted in unison, and by early November, 18,000 overseas Chinese had gathered on the outskirts of Batavia, preparing for a second attack on Batavia.
The Dutch mobilized in their entirety, and the army, with the exception of a part of the soldiers armed with swords and axes, defended the streets of the city. On the 11th, the Chinese armed forces and the Dutch army engaged in a bloody battle outside the city, repeatedly charging and killing the Dutch army formation, trying to fight closely and kill a lot of enemies. However, the Chinese team lacked discipline and training, lacked firearms, suffered heavy losses, failed the siege, and was forced to retreat.
In March 1741, Bata Blue King Of Surabaya. Bouvino II wanted to use the chinese to deport the Dutch and participated in the anti-Dutch war. The combined Chinese and Matala blue troops captured Gadasura, seized the fortress of the Dutch colonial army, killed the Commander of the Dutch Army, captured hundreds of Dutch officers and soldiers, and those who did not surrender were wiped out by the rebel army.
The Chinese are fighting
Phase II of the War:
At this time, the fighting spread throughout the island of Java, and the Chinese still had a part of the advantage despite their poor weapons and lack of training. Dutch colonists suffered heavy losses and economic losses, and multiple insurrectionary teams put Dutch colonists in a desperate situation of being beaten everywhere. However, the indigenous nobles of Java were unreliable, and the Dutch lured Chaninget, a vassal of the Lands of Matar, to the Maduratite state. In July 1741, the Maduras defected to the enemy, splitting the rebel ranks. Two groups of indigenous people kill each other, and the small indigenous countries are in a mess. The Dutch mobilized reinforcements from all over Indonesia to attack along the coastline, and Dutch warships followed the infantry, covering the infantry attack with cannons. The Chinese rebels were unable to support themselves on their own, and suffered a two-sided attack, and on November 13, 1741, the encirclement of Semarang Was broken by the Dutch. The Chinese armed forces were unable to gain a foothold along the coast of Java, could not fight for a long time, and had to move to the interior of Java.
Mata Blue King Baku. Bouvino II participated in the Chinese uprising, originally wanted to take the opportunity to catch a hand, but did not have the determination to fight the Dutch to the death. At the end of 1741, when the war situation began to turn against the rebels, the Mataran King wavered and intended to make peace with the Dutch. At the instigation of the Chinese, the Matalan rushed into the palace, burned down the palace of the Matalan King, and put Ba gu. King Buvono II drove away. The King's grandson Maas. Garendi was elected as the new king, and Chinese leaders such as Huang Ban and "Sir" moved here with Chinese armed forces and formed an alliance with the Matalan to resist the Netherlands.
Phase III of the War:
However, the Indigenous Javanese are unreliable and unreliable. In 1742, Gadasula was captured by the forces of King Chaningert of Maduratu, and the new king of Mataram, Mas. Garrendi was only ten years old and could not withstand the threats and inducements of the Dutch, and soon defected to the Dutch, and the Mataram parted ways with the Chinese.
The Chinese armed forces fought against the Dutch and Maduras at Asem and were defeated. After that, the Chinese armed forces lost their base and could only fight guerrillas in the mountains of southern Java. The natives of the island switched camps one after another and backstabbed the Chinese armed forces, which led to the final defeat of the Chinese uprising, and various rebel armies were suppressed by the Dutch colonists one after another. The Chinese armed forces fighting guerrillas in the mountains of Java persisted until the end, and in 1743 they were isolated and ran out of ammunition. Huang Ban himself persevered to the end and crossed the sea alone to Bali.
Dutch officer and his native wife
4. The ending
The Dutch won the final victory by annexing the entire north coast of Java and the rest of The State of Maduratu. In 1743-1744, the Maduras revolted. They fought on the side of the Dutch in the Chinese War, dreaming of independence. The Dutch, on the other hand, ignored their expectations and rebelled. This time, there were no Chinese to help them, and the uprising was eventually suppressed.
After the Red Creek Incident, the Dutch East India Company suffered heavy losses for many years, and the city of Batavia withered away, and the city was almost in ruins, except for the robbers who did make a windfall. The entire Javanese colony under governor Valknier was starved of food for many years, Chinese merchant ships were reluctant to return to Batavia, and the Dutch East India Company suffered heavy losses in international trade.
The company's board of directors was furious and ordered the recall of Governor Valknier for a thorough investigation. The unlearned racist Valknier was at first very arrogant and wanted to throw the blame for the incident to his subordinates. Inhofer. Eventually he was removed from office and sentenced to death at the Cape of Good Hope. The Dutch did not execute Valkenier because he had led a racist massacre of the Chinese, but only because Valkenier had inflicted irreparable losses on the Dutch East India Company.
After the Hongxi Incident, the governor of Fujian, Celen, learned the news from the Chinese businessmen who had fled back to the motherland and reported the matter to the Qing Dynasty, and the Qing court did not take charge of the overseas Chinese, neither did they ask questions of guilt, nor did they transfer their texts to denounce them, believing that these overseas Chinese were "people who did not return against the mainland's will, who were willing to live for a long time, who should have been righteous in the Heavenly Dynasty, who were killed in foreign affairs, and who were killed by their sins." ”
The Dutch were still very worried about the Qing court's guilt, and in the second year of the massacre, the governor Valkenil sent envoys to Beijing to apologize for their sins, to be humble in speech, and to justify their brutality. The Qianlong Emperor replied: "The people of The People did not hesitate to turn their backs on the tombs of their ancestors and go abroad for profit, but the imperial court did not pay any attention to them."
This remark is similar to the Ming Dynasty Wanli Emperor's "Edict to Luzon" after the First Massacre of Chinese by the Spaniards in Manila: "Overseas struggles, unknown culprits; and the four chinese people, the merchants are the most lowly, are they untouchables, and they are the untouchables, and they are mobilizing military revolutions?" And Shang JiaZhong abandoned his family to swim in the sea, suppressed the winter and did not return, his father and brothers and relatives, the common disdain, abandoned nothing pity, the soldiers turned against the laborers."
The words and deeds of the Qing court fully exposed the corruption of the Qing government and its indifference to the "overseas naked children", which was also one of the reasons for the failure of the "Chinese War". The Chinese immigrants in Southeast Asia were indeed "merchants without empires."
Comfortable days for the Dutch in Indonesia