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First, Xinjiang and Outer Mongolia both have ethnic and religious problems that are common in China's border areas, but there are obvious differences between the two.
A. In short, Xinjiang is a concentrated area of many ethnic minorities, most of the Uighurs are mainly concentrated in southern Xinjiang south of the Tianshan Mountains, Kazakhs are in northern Xinjiang, in addition to Tajiks, Uzbekistan, Mongolians and so on distributed in various regions of Xinjiang. This state of coexistence of multiple ethnic minorities is actually a check and balance between them. Within the same ethnic minority in Xinjiang, there are also different tribal factions, such as the Uighurs, and the Hui king of Hami in northern Xinjiang is always central and has a particularly reliable political attitude (during the Qianlong period, when the Qing army conquered southern Xinjiang, it was selected from among the nobles of the Hami Hui king and sent to the Uighur areas of southern Xinjiang to serve as the local Burke chief).
Similarly, the Mongols in Xinjiang are also divided into new and old Turbats, Erut, Heshuote, Tangnu Wulianghai-Tuva and so on. This state of affairs ensures that no ethnic minority in Xinjiang can thrive. Similarly, the same is true of religious beliefs in ethnic minority areas of Xinjiang, both In Islam and Tibetan Buddhism. Islam is divided into several sects.
B. But Outer Mongolia is completely different More than 90% of the Mongols in Outer Mongolia are desert northern Khalkha. The four khalkhas are chechen khans on the left and Tushetu khans on the left, and Seiyon and Zasaktu khans on the right. This is the Qing Dynasty's "Four Parts of Northern Mongolia", which in turn occupied nearly 80% of the territory of Outer Mongolia at that time - this is a schematic map of the population distribution of the main tribes in Outer Mongolia, and the six most important tribes are marked in the upper right corner, starting from the left, in order, the Khalkha tribe (halh, one man and one woman), the durbert tribe (dorvod), the Dariganga, the bayaad, the Burad, and the Kazakh (kazakh). , Kazakhs are Turkic, not Mongol).
The Khalkhas are indicated in yellow, and if you look at how large they occupy on the map, you will know... Moreover, the Mongols, whether they are the tribes of the south, north and west of the desert, or the Kalmyks who are still in the lower Volga River in Russia, all believe in Tibetan Buddhism (Yellow Religion), which in turn leads to the overwhelming religious influence of the Yellow Religion in Outer Mongolia. There are four living Buddhas in Tibetan Buddhism, namely the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama in Tibetan areas, the Inner Mongolia Zhangjia Hutuktu, and the Outer Mongolian Jebtsundamba Hutuktu. Tibetan Buddhism is characterized by the unity of church and state, and it is common for the Pope to intervene in politics. This Jebtsundamba in Outer Mongolia is also like the first Jebtsundamba Hutuktu Thangka Dharma. The highly homogeneous ethnic structure + highly unified religious beliefs make Outer Mongolia, like Tibet, barbaric, closed, and extremely congregated internally, and it is difficult for the outside world to intervene.
Second, the central government of the Qing Dynasty had a world of differences in military and political power in Xinjiang and Outer Mongolia. A good way to strengthen rule in the frontier areas is to garrison troops. Garrisons can form the most effective political deterrent to local and foreign forces. As we all know, the Qing Dynasty's inclusion of Outer Mongolia and Xinjiang in its territory was mainly due to the Qing Dynasty, which began with the beginning of the Kangxi Era and ended in the middle of the Qianlong Period, which lasted for more than 70 years.
Still in the Period of Emperor Taiji outside Guanwai, the Qing Dynasty had basically controlled Southern Mongolia, abolished the Chahar Khan's account, and made the Qing Emperor the Great Khan of all Mongolia (the Qing Emperor had a dual identity, one was the "Qing Emperor" and the other was the "Great Khan of Mongolia"). The three ministries of Mobei chose to pay tribute to the Qing Dynasty (there was no Saiyin Noyan department at that time), nominally recognizing the status of the Qing Emperor's Great Khan and establishing a loose relationship between the clans and feudals.
During the Kangxi Dynasty, the Dzungar nobleman Gardan invaded Khalkha in the east and defeated the three departments of Northern Mobei. The latter fled to Inner Mongolia with the second Jebtsundamba and requested help from the Qing army. This is not only the crisis in northern Xinjiang, but also provides a good opportunity for the Qing Dynasty to directly control northern Mongolia. Through several major battles such as UlanButong and the Northern Expedition to Zhao modo, the Qing army defeated Kaldan and also controlled the three nobles of Northern Mobei. Naturally, the Qing Dynasty also took the opportunity to restrict the nobles and lama cliques of The Khalkha in northern Mobei: they were not allowed to interfere in government affairs again; they were sent to the minister stationed in Kulun to monitor the Buddhas and nobles; they were to demarcate the Saiyin Noyan department from the most powerful left-wing Tushetu Khan and put them on the right wing, turning the three parts of the northern desert into four parts; selecting candidates from among the children of the young nobles of the four parts of the northern part of the desert and sending them to Beijing for "inner court education", educating them in the Manchu and Sinicized education from an early age, and then marrying and matching the women of the Aixinjuela royal family when they reached adulthood. In short, in order to differentiate and control the northern Khalkha, the Qing Dynasty took many measures, and overall, the results were not bad.
The picture above is that of Prince Celing of Chaoyong of the Noyan Department of Khalkha, and below is his son, The Right Deputy General of Dingbian, Ce (Che) Buden Zabu.
Both father and son were pro-Manchu outer Mongolian nobles cultivated by the Qing Dynasty through the method of "Manchu-Mongolian marriage + inner court upbringing". During the Yongzheng and Qianlong dynasties, they made great contributions to the Qing Dynasty's efforts to strengthen its rule in Outer Mongolia. For most of the entire Qing Dynasty War, the Qing army maintained a fairly strong military force in Outer Mongolia, and in the Qing Dynasty Military Aircraft Department and other documents, they were called the "North Road Qing Army", mainly stationed in Ulyasutai and Kobdo in the western part of Outer Mongolia (the Qing army stationed in Hami and Balikun in Xinjiang was the Qing army in the west of The Western Road).
In the Qing army on the north road, there were the Eight Banners of Manchuria, the Han Army, and the Green Battalion, the Mongol soldiers of the Inner Mongolian League Banners mobilized from all over Inner Mongolia, and the "Sumu ( equivalent to the "Niulu" in the Eight Banners of Manchuria, that is, Jianding) from the various departments of outer Mongolia. In addition to confronting and fighting with the Dzungars, this Qing army must also form a deterrent to the local Khalkha nobles in Outer Mongolia. However, in the 24th to 25th years of Qianlong, after the Qing army completely defeated the Dzungars and included Xinjiang in the territory, the Qing court did not think it was necessary to maintain an excessively large military force in Outer Mongolia, coupled with the remoteness of Outer Mongolia, all kinds of armaments and materials, including grain, had to be transferred from the interior, which cost a lot of money and was a great burden on finances.
Therefore, after the end of the Qing Dynasty War, the Qing Dynasty cut down the Qing army on the North Road. As a result, from the middle of the Qianlong Dynasty, the Qing Dynasty seriously lacked military forces directly under the central government in Outer Mongolia. There were only a few hundred men under Minister Kulen, and there were only a thousand men under General Uria Sudai. With a force of only 1,000 to 2,000 men, but to deter and defend more than 1.6 million square kilometers of territory (including the Tangnu Ulyan Sea area at that time), these garrisons were meaningless. On the contrary, after the Qing army defeated Dzungar, it maintained a considerable military force in Xinjiang, and even after experiencing the disasters of Agupa and Bai Yanhu during the Tongzhi period, Zuo Zongtang successfully rebuilt the military strength in the local area after the western conquest of Xinjiang. When the Xinhai Revolution broke out in 1911, the princes and nobles of Outer Mongolia declared "independence" under the influence of Russia, and at this time, the Qing Dynasty's minister in Kulun was surrounded by Sanduo, and there were only more than a hundred Manchu and Han relatives and soldiers, who could only play the role of honor guards and subordinates.
Third, the natural environment, traffic conditions and immigration conditions between Xinjiang and Outer Mongolia are different. Encouraging the Han population in the interior to move to the frontier through the "real border" of immigration can not only alleviate the contradiction between the large number of people in the interior and the small amount of land, but also change the ethnic proportion in the border areas and strengthen the rule of the central government in the local area.
The Qing Dynasty thought of this method very early. Xinjiang has a vast territory, and at the same time has a variety of climate and environmental types, deserts, pastures, primeval forests, plateaus, what terrain and vegetation, Xinjiang not only has grasslands suitable for nomadic people, but also a large area suitable for farming, especially the Ili River Valley, with an excellent climate. There are also large areas of cotton fields in northern and southern Xinjiang, and the cultivation of cotton has until now been a key major project in Xinjiang's agriculture, especially in the agricultural economic structure of the Construction Corps. Xinjiang's land and climate are suitable for agricultural development, which provides high-quality conditions for Han immigrants to engage in agricultural production in the local area, which is conducive to the migration of the inland agricultural population to Xinjiang.
But Outer Mongolia is once again completely different, and the territory of Outer Mongolia is mainly the Great Gobi, the steppe and the primary forest. Summer is particularly short, while the soil is desertified and lacks humus, which is particularly detrimental to crop growth. From the time of the Kangxi Dynasty of the Qing Dynasty, the Qing army tried tun tian in the local area, but basically failed. It is known that in the middle and late nineteenth century, potatoes, a hardy, fast-growing crop suitable for sandy soil, were gradually popularized, and the Qing army green soldiers in Outer Mongolia successfully tried to plant in the local area, and the yield was limited. This characteristic determines that it is difficult to migrate the agricultural population to Outer Mongolia.
Fourth, the external political forces affecting Xinjiang and Outer Mongolia are different. In the mid-to-late nineteenth century, in Xinjiang, there were at least three political forces: the Qing government, the British colonial government in India, and the Tsarist Russian forces, and you can also count turkey. Although the four forces compete with each other, although it seems very complicated, the more forces there are, the more obvious the differentiation, no one can be the protagonist, and they must compromise with each other. As a result, neither the British nor Russian imperialists could swallow Xinjiang alone. But Outer Mongolia, again, is different.
Outer Mongolia is a closed inland region, it is basically the Qing Dynasty and Russia, which is also notoriously insatiable polar bear. As a result, in the late Qing Dynasty, Russian forces achieved a strong and dominant effect in Outer Mongolia. The only foreign power that Outer Mongolia declared "independence" and fanned the flames was Russia. Note: At the end of 1911, after the "independence" of the Outer Mongolian princes and lamas, all countries in the world except Russia did not recognize it. Outer Mongolia's "Acting Prime Minister of the Government and Minister of Foreign Affairs" and the last Minister of the Seinoyan Ministry, Hangda Dorji, proposed that since "china" has become independent, all countries in the world should be invited to send diplomatic legations to "our country" and set up embassies in Kulun. Rejected by Russia, Russia made it clear that Outer Mongolia, though "independent," was only a "protectorate" under Russian influence. Huntadorziin insisted and was poisoned by the Russians shortly after. In 1914, World War I broke out, and Russia fell into the quagmire of war, unable to dominate Outer Mongolia.
In 1915, without informing the "Government of Outer Mongolia", Russia negotiated and reached an agreement with the government of Yuan Shikai of Beiyang in China, which guaranteed Russia's various economic privileges in Outer Mongolia, and Russia guaranteed that Outer Mongolia would withdraw its "independence" and recognize China as the "nominal suzerainty" of Outer Mongolia. In the past ten years, in order to study the history of Mongolia in the Qing Dynasty and the field of Tibetan Buddhism, I have visited Inner and Outer Mongolia, Kalmyk Mongolia, etc., and even got a lot of information on the religious relations between Mongolia and Tibet in the Qing Dynasty from the exiled ZR Lama in India.
In this way, at the end of the whole text, I would also like to share my own views on Outer Mongolia today: I personally believe that, in a pragmatic manner, we do not need to emphasize today the claim that Outer Mongolia return to China's territorial sovereignty. Because today's Outer Mongolia is still a closed landlocked country, it is surrounded by China and Russia, and third-party forces cannot intervene. The faces and attitudes of China and Russia determined his national fortunes. As long as China's national strength is not too weak, and it has political and economic superiority and the necessary military backing against Russia, China can seize the initiative on the issue of foreign Mongolia at any time.
Thank you for seeing the end, let's all talk about it, give your opinion on the matter,