By Li Fu (Gil Raz), translated by Bai Zhaojie
Editor's note: This article was originally included in Early Chinese Religion Part Two: Period of Division (220-589 AD), edited by John Lagerwey and Lü Pengzhi, Volume Two. Brill, 2010]。 Thanks to the authorization and support of Professor Li Fu and Professor Lau Gewen, we hereby entrust Bai Zhaojie, associate researcher of the Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences, to translate this article, and after being revised by the original authors, publish it in this column for the sake of Xuelin. This is the first translation Chinese this article.
For those who study immortals, it is advisable to travel to the famous mountains, kneel down to wish the heavenly spirits, and seek this meditation recipe. [1]
The unique and independent hermits stroll through the mountain landscape and meditate in the caves of The Hill, which is the most common theme (tropes) in Chinese art, poetry and even literature. The recluse who inhabits nature has actually become one with nature, representing the image of the sages of antiquity. This image is very meaningful, and the word "immortal" carries the form of "man on the side of the mountain" to symbolize the ultimate achievement. "Immortal" obtains a variety of English translations such as "immortality" and "transcendence", and the exact meaning of the achievement of immortals varies for different practitioners and lineages, and the best understanding should be to attain enlightenment. [2] The image of a solitary hermit meditating in the mountains and becoming one with the Tao became an idealized Taoist sage, which remained true after the Transformation of the Taoist tradition into the "unofficial high religion of China".[3] However, this is not just the image of a Taoist sage that has been scattered throughout the history of the Taoist tradition. The mountain, as a food for immortals and a place of transcendence, has occupied the core position of Taoist practice from the time when Taoism was still in the ambiguous and unclear origin stage of early China, to the lineages that emerged in the early Middle Ages, and then to the popular imagination in recent times, and its core position has never changed. [4]
In this article, I study the different conceptions of geography and the universe that developed in the Taoist sects that emerged between the second and sixth centuries. These factions are defined by different sutra revelations and are often associated with specific mountains. It was these factions that transformed the Taoist tradition into an institutional religion that continues to this day.
While sharing general ideas about the sanctity of landscapes, the Taoist scriptures produced in the early Middle Ages reveal a far more sacred and mysterious topography than the sacred geography imagined by the imperial court and the populace. These Taoist scriptures contain stories of spiritual journeys to distant worlds or through a network of mountain caves. In some stories, these networks form the ritual and institutional basis of a Taoist sect. Other texts list the mountains and the ancient sages who inhabited them as sites where teachings and revelations took place. Some of the material in these literatures is actually cosmographies, which give new, mysterious, and all-encompassing knowledge about the geography of the world. The Taoist geographical imagination infused its natural form with the hidden power and efficacy that is indispensable for the immortals. Further, Taoist geography touches beyond the realm, constructing a world of mountains and caves that extends above, below, and within the visible landscape. In fact, one of the main points I have made in this article is that we should think of Taoist sacred geography first and foremost as an intrinsic, meditative cosmology, rather than as a map of landscapes or geographies.
In our analysis of taoist sacred geography, we are confronted with two fundamental problems that are interrelated. First, we need to distinguish the Taoist conception of geography from the other three geographical imaginations that permeated the minds of the Chinese people: the imperial court, the local, and the Buddhist imagination. As we shall see below, Taoist ideas are closely linked to the idea of the state and local traditions, while at the same time being slightly intertwined with Buddhist ideas.
The second conundrum is how to define Taoism itself. For the convenience of this article, I define Taoism as lineages of scripture and ritual. These factions saw the Tao as an indescribable but active process, advocating a method of communion with and unity with the Tao. The most famous Taoist sect is Tianshi Dao, which appeared in the Sichuan region in the second half of the second century. This Taoist movement established a sacred, ritualized administrative system of the Twenty-Four Rules, most of which were located on the mountains of Sichuan. Two later Taoist sects were the Shangqing and Lingbao, which came into being in the second half of the fourth century and accrued among the closely related southern scholar groups living in the Southern Dynasty capital jiankang (present-day Nanjing). Especially in the scriptures related to the Shangqing school, new sacred geographies appeared, with special mythological, cosmological, and ritual meanings (entailments). The most important of these cosmology is the Dongtian system, which is one of the most fascinating aspects of the Taoist cosmology. My second major point in this article is that these geographical imaginations, particular travel stories, and systematic cosmology can be used to extrapolate the social and historical contours of Taoism in medieval China.
In the following articles, I will discuss the various cosmology created by different Taoist sects. Although descriptions largely follow the chronological sequence of their appearance, these cosmology and their evolution, as well as the exact chronology of the literature describing them, are rather complex and difficult. In each case, I discuss the mythological and ritual context of the scriptural material and the cosmological genre. In the first part, I will introduce some basic mythological and historical concepts that permeate the Taoist imagination of sacred geography. In the second part, I examine the concept of the Five Peaks, revealing the remarkable overlap between the state and Taoism in geographical imagination and ritual practice. The third part focuses on the ritual and cosmological administrative apparatus established by the Celestial Master. In the fourth verse, I will examine the cave heavens; in the last verse, "The ultimate mountain," I will focus on the mountain of man and bird. The Human Bird Mountain represents the Tao itself, which can only be reached through ritual meditation. However, it is important to remember that The Human Bird Mountain is only one of several ultimate mountains that appear in the Taoist imagination of the Six Dynasties. These ultimate, distant mountains transcend the realm of mankind, and in fact, these mountains are where the avenue itself lies.
I. Synopsis of History and Mythology
The kings of the Shang and Zhou Dynasties worshiped sacred mountains and rivers. Ancient legends that chronicle the journeys of mythical kings around the world reflect these worshippers. Mythical kings saw the journey as a civilized, creative parade within the kingdom. The most important of these myths is Yu's march through the country after he successfully surrendered the flood. [5] This story is particularly important for the development of the Taoist conception of the universe. As I will demonstrate below, the re-creation of this story in the Five-Symbol Order in the late third century may have been the earliest basis for associating it with a definite Taoist sacred geography. [6] The stories in the Five-Rune Order, in turn, inspired much of the Taoist geographical imagination in the centuries that followed.
Ancient geographical concepts and activities were systematized and institutionalized during the Qin and Han dynasties, reaching their peak in the Feng zen sacrifices on Mount Tai. [7] By the end of the Warring States period, Mount Tai was known as Dongyue (東岳), and together with four other large mountains formed a system of sacred mountains arranged in four directions and in the center, namely the five mountains mentioned above. [8] Echoing Tarzan's role in the Imperial Vision, Tarzan was also used as the seat of the Hades Office, where the deceased was to be registered. [9]
In addition to these famous five sacred mountain systems, there are other mountain systems. These mountain systems were either numerically organized in harmony with the structure of the universe,[10] or were catalogued in encyclopedic works such as the Huainanzi Topographical Training or the Classic of Mountains and Seas, which were designed to subordinate the known universe to dynasties or cultural centers. [11] All these statements, as well as numerous other texts, argue that Kunlun, where the Queen Mother of the West lived, is located in the far west and is the axis of the universe. [12] We find in the late second-century Notes on Lao Tzu's Thoughts that when Lao Tzu ceased to appear in human form, he was considered to have inhabited the Kunlun Mountains. [13] Lao tzu's connection to the Kunlun Mountains is still of fundamental importance in early Medieval Taoist texts. [14]
Mountains are believed to have the role of "town" (guard) of their own existence. However, these massive rocks are thought to be both viable and fertile. Therefore, the first-century dictionary "Shuowen" gives the following definition: "Mountains, Xuanye, are said to be able to disperse all things." [15]
Mountains are not a bunch of rocks without life, they are considered to be a fertile womb, which gives birth to everything in the world through the divergence and circulation of essence. The view of the mountain as a dynamic passage of qi was further developed in a document of the second century of the year: "The mountain contains the qi, so it contains the essence of the cloud, so it touches the stone and clothes." [16] For Western thought, this view seems counterintuitive, so it is necessary to further emphasize that mountains function very much like organs in the human body in Chinese medicine theory, in other words, given the cycle of essence in the universe, mountains act as a key conduit between heaven and earth.
While these views of the vitality and fertility of mountains are widely accepted, the Taoist emphasis is on the internal rather than the external dimensions of the mountains. They believe that the clouds surrounding the peaks and the potential of the earth's fetal treasures intersect in the mysterious caves of the mountains, giving birth to the gold, jade and mineral deposits necessary for refining elixirs. Located deep beneath the mountains, these caves are miniature universes with their own sun and moon. Within these caves, the limitations of time and space in the world are eliminated. These hidden secrets are also where spiritual revelations and teachings appear, and they only open the door to the interior for a small number of promoted people who have knowledge of the Dao and can use the arcane magic. Some mountains and their inner worlds can actually only be accessed through the path of meditation. The cave is thus considered the road to the inner world. And this inner world is the ubiquitous and fertile emptiness, that is, the Tao itself. [17]
The Six Dynasties Taoist scriptures elaborate on the rich connotations of "dong", often corresponding to the near-syllable word "tong". [18] The paradoxical concept of abundant emptiness is revealed in the word "emptiness." The "void" is used to name the original emptiness from which everything eventually gives birth. For example, in the theory of cosmological generation described in the Late Fourth Century Lingbao Sutra "Dongxuan Lingbao Natural Nine Heavenly Born Gods Chapter Sutra",[19] the nine qi that produced the manifest world "out of space, hidden in the void." [20] In addition, the Nine Qi is the product of the Three Caves themselves of the Great Cave, the Cave Xuan, and the Cave God. The three caves are described as a continuous eternal cycle of complex cosmic biochemistry, in which primitive gods and specialized scriptures appear. Fearing that the reader would divide these cosmic periods and scriptures into different categories, the text reiterates: "Although these three numbers are different in year, they are the same. [21] The combination of the three is "hollow". [22] The multiple meanings of "cave" thus became the tone of "three caves", which is a term collectively referred to as the Tao-Tibetan scriptures. Each "hole" is a collection of Tao sutras, associated with specialized scriptures and ritual factions. This classification has been the basic organizational structure of Daozang since the first Compilation of Daozang in the fifth century. [23]
Even before the reorganization of old ideas in stories created by the Taoist factions of the Six Dynasties, the mountains were already considered to be places where revelation came and the hermits practiced. The tales of the Immortals,[24] the Immortals[25], as well as the Notes on the Water Classics and many other texts, reveal the coherence between the hermit and the mountains. For example, Ning Fengzi got its name from the Mountain of Buried Bones. [26] Similarly, Lingyang Ziming practiced a special method of eating at Mount Hua and eventually took a dragon to Lingyang Mountain. [27] It is unclear whether he got his name from the mountain or, on the contrary, because of Lingyang Ziming. Both stories reflect that hermits often use the same name as the mountains where they live.
As in the case of Lingyang Ziming, many stories reflect that going to the mountains to receive guidance, receive teachings, and cultivate is a key aspect of the practice. For example, the first story in the Biography of the Immortals mentions Chi Songzi, one of the most famous immortals of the Qin and Han dynasties, who often traveled to Kunlun Mountain to meet the Queen Mother of the West. [28] Thus, the story connects Akamatsuko to the ancient immortal legend system associated with the Kunlun Mountains and the Western Queen Mother. A story that may have originally originated from the Five-Stroke Order is preserved in the Tale of the Immortals, saying that Huang Chuping changed his name to Chi Songzi after he became an immortal at Mount Jinhua (present-day Zhejiang). [29] The story appropriates the mythological system associated with Akamatsuko, linking the local center of faith in Huangchuping, Jinhua Mountain, to the prestige of the mythological figures of Akamatsuko. There is little record of Huang Chuping's beliefs during the Six Dynasties period, but Mount Jinhua has been integrated into the Shangqing cosmology and became the Thirty-sixth Cave Heaven (see below for details). [30]
Jinhua Mountain is the site of Huang Chuping's belief, and the content it contains in the Shangqing cosmology should remind us that the social and historical realities of early Medieval Taoism are not limited to the famous Taoist sects mentioned above. The labels of Tianshi, Shangqing, or Lingbao are not as clearly defined as they might appear. In the development of Taoist sects, local traditions were constantly integrated, and they were merged or divided according to the lesser-known lineage of teachers and apprentices. Therefore, it is often very difficult to accurately classify literature according to specific markers. In fact, the idea of Medieval Taoism as merely a combination of these three famous Taoist sects masks the endemic changes and other factions that were active in that era. Some of these local factions merged into larger institutionalized groups. Such mergers are often remembered in the literature and possibly in ceremonies by incorporating new places and places into an ever-expanding geographical vision. It is through these subtle traces embedded in the sacred geography that we are able to glimpse the disappearing and annexed factions, and to glimpse the interaction between Taoism and local cultures and imperial traditions.
The Later Noble Passage is a document linked to the Revelation of the Shangqing around 365, and the quotation at the beginning of this article is quoted from this classic. The story of the post-Saint Journey in the Post-Noble Chronicles is a good example of the absorption and tampering of the mythological and geographical conceptions of antiquity and empire, as well as the interaction between different Taoist factions. [31] According to this document:
On the sixth day of March of the year of the 1st of the Year of the Year of the Emperor, the Holy Emperor came and came to the People of Zhao. When it was time, the Saint Jun was sent from the West Mountain of Qingcheng, out of Longnanyun. Outside the dragon candle in the north, the pass of the nine streams in the west, the morning sunset of the Fulin forest in the east, and the Zhushan Cloud in the south. [32]
The post-saint journey described in this passage is clearly similar to the hunting journey carried out by the holy king described in ancient mythological stories, and such a tour is reproduced by Qin Shi Huang and several Han Dynasty emperors. However, the journey of the Latter-Day Saint was farther than any human emperor, and he reached the end of the world. These remote borders are described according to legendary place names, all taken from ancient stories. The choice of the dragon candle as the signifier of the north may have a deep meaning, because it is the name of a dragon and not a place name. According to the Classic of Mountains and Seas, this dragon lived on the top of Mount Zhong, which is imagined to stand on the northern border of the world. [33] According to the Order of the Five Runes, Yu received the Five Runes from Heaven after completing his mission, and the place where he hid the Five Runes was on this mountain. [34] I will go back to the story and Zhong Shan in detail.
Most importantly, the journey to the mythical world border began in Qingcheng. Qingcheng is a real mountain on the north side of Chengdu on the Sichuan Plain. Mount Qingcheng is not far from Mount Heming, which is said to be the place where Zhang Ling received the revelation of Zhengyi Mengwei from Lao Tzu and was awarded the title of Heavenly Master. Early Tianshi Dao texts do not emphasize the importance of Mount Qingcheng, which is not included in the Twenty-Four Rules of Tianshi. However, in the fourth century, Qingcheng became one of the most sacred Taoist holy places, becoming the fifth largest cave heaven in the Shangqing Dao Cave Heaven list. [35]
Although Mount Qingcheng was already a sacred place before the Tianshi Dao, its new importance may be attributed to the following circumstances: In the last few years of the third century, Fan Changsheng established more than a thousand organized groups here. [36] In the early decade of the fourth century, Fan Changsheng supported the Li family's short-lived attempt to rebuild the kingdom based on the teachings of Tianshi Dao. Fan Changsheng, also known as Yanjiu and Jiuwei, was a Charismatic leader in his order and was known for his magical abilities. The question of whether he was a member of the Tianshi Taoist Order is still controversial, as his behavior is more in line with the Fangshi tradition than in Tianshi Dao. [37] In addition, he was "worshipped as a god by the people", but this was clearly inconsistent with the doctrinal theory of Tianshi Dao. [38] However, after Li Xiong captured Chengdu in 304, he recruited Fan Changsheng as chancellor and conferred the title of Heaven and Earth Taishi. The fusion of Fan Changsheng's order with the Tianshi Daoist movement gave the latter a foothold in Sichuan again, illustrating the integration of local beliefs and local organizations with emerging Taoist traditions.
This passage from the Later Noble Chronicles thus reveals a series of fusion phenomena that reflect the trajectory of the historical development of Taoism. Mount Qingcheng has long been an important area in the local tradition of the Sichuan Basin, and it was integrated into the revelation story of Tianshi Dao in the early fourth century. Then, in the seminal literature of the mid-fourth century, the mountain is imagined as the starting point of the post-saint journey through the universe. In fact, the structure of this narrative places Mount Qingcheng at the center of the world. This phenomenon of re-inscription is enough to remind us that, as Isabelle Robinet, Angelica Cedzich, and Stephen Bokenkamp have demonstrated, the Shangqing revelation and practice is at least partly a reorganization of the Texts of the Celestial Master. [39] The Shangqing Revelation created its own unique cosmology of cave heavens, the vast majority of which are located along the southeast coast. When we recall the above, the phenomenon of placing the Latter-Day Saints in the mountains that were once the revelations of the Heavenly Master's Path may actually imply that the author of the Post-Noble Path jun lieji consciously identified, through these geographical hints, one of the sources of the Shangqing teachings.
II. Five Mountains: The Idea of empire
Ming Qiuying's "Five Stars and Twenty-Eight Divine Shape Scrolls" is now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art.
As mentioned earlier, one of the earliest and most important cosmology developed in the pre-Qin period was the Wuyue system. The review of the historical development process of the Wuyue system is beyond the length of this article. [40] It is sufficient to know that the list of the Five Peaks in the early Imperial Era was standardized to Taishan in the East, Mount Hua in the West, Hengshan in the South, Changshan (or Hengshan) in the North, and Mount Song in the Center.
We will see that other lists of "Yue" will appear in the Taoist revelations of the Six Dynasties. The use of the word "岳" in these different cosmographies is more than just a name, a term that symbolizes official appointments and can be used to refer to different geographical features. James Robson has studied that the label "Nanyue" was awarded different mountains during the Han, Six dynasties and Tang dynasties. [41] As we will see in our subsequent explorations of Dongting Lake, Zhongshan, and Jinling, such changes in geographical names and geographical indications are not uncommon.
Yue has the function of guardian of imperial power within the country. The Taoist faction recognizes this function. In fact, it is precisely on the shared understanding that Yue has the function of protecting imperial power that we have discovered the close interaction between the state and Taoist concepts during the Wei and Jin dynasties and even the Tang Dynasty. This is often especially true when Taoism overlaps with the design of the imperial court's ceremonial system, as in the case of Tang Xuanzong, who adopted a version of Wuyue's Taoism. However, we can find that earlier, when the Taoists thought that a particular ruler might establish Taoist rule, or when the Taoists tried to actively put a particular power suitor on the throne, they would have an important influence on the five-year ritual of the imperial court.
An extremely appealing case of this phenomenon of influence converging occurred in the fifth century in the Middle Yue Song Mountains, when two apocalypse came, applying to Liu Yu (reigned 356-422; reigned 420-422) and Kou Qianzhi (365-448). Liu Yu would soon establish the Liu Song Dynasty in the south; Kou Qianzhi was about to become the leader of Northern Taoism, and under his guidance, he established Taoist rule under Tuoba of Northern Wei.
Beginning in 393, Sun En's rebellion threatened the southeast coastal region, and Liu Yu became famous for his conquest of Sun En. Sun En died in 402, but it was not until 411 that Liu Yu successfully beheaded Sun En's son-in-law and successor Lu Xun that the rebellion was finally quelled. The military victory stabilized Liu Yu's position as the leader of the most powerful army in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, and he began to challenge Sima Shi's declining rule. In 416, Liu Yu led an army to the north to retake the old capital Chang'an. This victory further consolidated Liu Yu's position. During the brief Northern Expedition, the Apocalypse descended on Mount Song, declaring that Liu Yu was the thirty-second generation successor of the Liu clan of the Han Dynasty, and that the Mandate of Heaven was destined to re-establish the rule of the Liu Dynasty. The clearest account of this revelation is preserved in a story related to the monastic name:
Emperor Song told me that there was General Liu in Jiangdong, who was of Miao descent from the Han family and should be subject to the Mandate of Heaven. I should believe in thirty-two bi, a cake of gold, and a general. Thirty-two Bi people, the number of Liu's Bu shi also.
Before the Dharma said that he was dying at the bed, he passed on this revelation to his disciple Puyan, who in turn revealed it to his classmate Fayi. FaYi later found these treasures with heraldic significance under the altar of the Songshan Temple. [42] Although this revelation was transmitted among Buddhist monks, its most fundamental source was the god Songshan. There is no doubt that the revelation came from the Songshan god, which made the Taoists accept and support Liu Yu's claim to imperial power. [43] Thus, for example, the Lingbao Heaven and Earth Fortune Sutra:[44]
Xuan Yun Golden Horse End,
The ancient moon invaded Shenzhou.
……
Jingyang Willow secondly,
The Yue symbol has been engraved.
Compiled in this mysterious poem is the following prophecy: The journey of Xuanshui will replace the decaying journey of the Golden Horse (Sima of the Jin Dynasty) (translated as the "line" is the line of the five elements). The invasion of Shenzhou in China by the Hu refers to the invasion and occupation of the northern plains by non-Han chinese groups that began in the fourth century. Huan Xuan (369-404) was an encumbered warlord within the Jin Dynasty, and although in a dominant position at this time, he would be replaced by Liu Yu. [45] These things have been prophesied and inscribed on the runes found on Mount Song. In 420, Liu Yu established the Song Dynasty.
At the same time that the apocalypse from Mount Song announced that Liu Yu had inherited the Mandate of Heaven, other revelations also appeared on this mountain. The recipient of these revelations is Kou Qianzhi. Kou Qianzhi came from a family that had long established ties with Taoism. [46] Beginning in 394, Kou Qianzhi began a thirty-year-long life of seclusion and cultivation in the mountains, first hiding in Mount Hua and then migrating to Mount Song. During his time at Songshan, Kou Qianzhi allegedly received two revelations from Lao Jun, the first in 415 and the second in 423. On the basis of these revelations, he compiled the LaoJunyin Recitation of the Precepts,[47] and presented it to Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei in 424. With the support of The Zaichen Cui Hao (381-450), Kou Qianzhi gained the trust of Emperor Taiwu and established the so-called "Taoist theocracy", which lasted until 451. [48] The stele dedicated to Kou Qianzhi by both sides and the fact that they were carved on Mount Hua and Mount Song with the support of the imperial court reflect Kou Qianzhi's fusion of Taoist and imperial concepts, which focused on The Five Peaks. [49] These two similar inscriptions begin with a passage on the evolution of the universe:
Tai Chi dissection, the two instruments are divided. Four verses of generational order, five elements of propaganda. It is the heavens that have five latitudes, and the Lord gives yang shi; the earth has five mountains, and the lord inherits the yin. [50]
This passage is not a simple reiteration of the relationship between the Five Peaks and the standard Five Elements, but gives the Five Peaks the cosmological role of initiative in promoting the yin qi cycle. The above quotation resonates with the view that the mountain is regarded in Han Dynasty literature as a "viscera" that exudes qi and vitality, and at the same time sets the tone for the next passage in the inscription that links the worship of the Five Peaks with the ritual hunting of the ancients. The following passage places the Five Peaks of Worship and the Hunting Hunt at the center of imperial etiquette, arguing that the two guard the harmony between heaven, earth, and man:
Xi Nong created, guanxiang legislation, king father heaven and mother earth, Yangzong Sanchen, overlooking the mountains and rivers... Descending □ Tang Yu, honoring Haotian, honoring the hundred gods, hunting for five years, and bowing to Yue Ling. [51]
The inscription goes on to say that in return for these rituals, God will bestow rewards and blessings on mankind. However, due to the decline of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, weak rulers "no longer walked under Fang Yue", resulting in the collapse of the ancient harmonious order. The Qin, Han, Wei, and Jin dynasties that followed "did not respect the ancient beginnings." The article goes on to focus on the political and social chaos in the north in the third to fifth centuries, emphasizing that the reason for this result was that the empire admired Buddhism and abandoned the worship of the Five Peaks:
Liu, Shi, Murong, and Yizhi... Futu is the queen, the sacrifice is not a ceremony, the gods are angry and the people rebel, and they are immortal. [52]
Kou Qianzhi then praised Tuoba Wei for practicing good governance based on Taoist teachings in response to this long-lasting upheaval:
Dadai Longxing,[53] corrected the chaos, simplified the punishment, and did nothing.
Most importantly, Kou Qianzhi is now introduced as a recipient of the New Apocalypse, which guarantees his status as a successor and gives him the ability to facilitate the work of rebuilding proper imperial etiquette:
In the hermitage, Yue Yue has been in the middle for more than 3 years, accumulating virtue and becoming enlightened, and feeling deep into the void. The gods descended and gave the Kyushu True Master the teachings of the True Master of Kyushu, the management of people and ghosts, the order of the Kingdom of Saku, and the counseling of the Taiping True King. The Charter is classical, the Yue Ancestral Hall can be praised for its beauty... Therefore, the Holy Pilgrimage □ Wei Gu Lie, Yu Xia Zhilong, yin Zhou Zhisheng. [54]
The imperial ritual reforms presented in the inscriptions then focused on proper sacrifices over the Five Peaks, which reverberated with the ancient patterns. The most crucial element of this system is the idea that the state itself is sacred. In fact, Tuoba Wei built a ritual system on top of Kou Qianzhi's plan, which synthesized the reformed Tianshi Dao with various themes of Buddhism, Confucianism, and the imperial court. The details of this plan, especially this ritual system and the sinification of non-Han regimes, are far beyond the scope of this article, but in a word, the Wuyue sacrifice is the core connotation of this ritual structure.
A similar ritual system of reformed Taoism and imperial mountain sacrifice was established more than a century later by Emperor Wu of the Northern Zhou Dynasty (reigned 561-578). Emperor Wu of Zhou made this move as part of his attempt to unify the country. [55] Very important for the project of integrating the ritual system with the support of the Empire was the establishment of the Taoist institution Of Passage. The function of the passage view is to formulate appropriate rituals. This new system of religious administration rejects Buddhism, unreformed Taoism, and the people's obscene shrines, "only the Temple of the Five Peaks." The establishment of the new ritual project was completed at the instigation of Yan Da, the hermit of The Valley, and nine other Daoist monks. Tian Gu is a mountain range west of the capital, and these ten people are called The Ten Elders of Tian Gu.
Yan Da and Wang Yan were closely related to Lou Guan, and the other ten elders might be the same. Louguan is a Taoist building on The South Mountain, which began to be highlighted in the fifth and sixth centuries. The exact relationship between these different Taoist sects has yet to be further elucidated. Here we need only know that in the case of Tuoba Wei, this imperially-backed Taoist institution established in the capital became part of the effort to unify the state by eliminating competitive religious systems and restoring ancient patterns. Both projects were attempts to merge Taoist ideas with the imperial system.
Therefore, Taoism adopted the Five Elements Corresponding System of the Han Dynasty, believing that the Five Peaks were the land elements corresponding to the five stars in the sky and the five internal organs of the human body. However, in a more intimate Taoist context, in the scriptures related to the True Form of the Five Peaks, the Five Peaks are mainly used as sacred symbols (numinous emblems). [56]
In contrast to the imperial rituals, the role of the Five Peaks as the "guardian (town)" of the state is reflected, and in the Five Peaks True Form Map, the function of the Five Peaks is obtained through its "True Form" inscription, rather than by the journey in the mountains. Thus, the "true form" refers to the manifestation of the inner and essential levels of the sacred mountain, rather than the external, visible topographic map. [57] These mysterious manifestations are used as tools and objects of reckoning. Taoist literature and inscription materials reveal that the "True Shape Map" has two different basic forms: one is a complex map of the interior space of the mountain, marking waterways and caves, and the other is an abstract symbol, representing the mountain in pure symbolic form. [59] However, these materials are later than the times we are concerned with in this article, so there is no need to cite them to illustrate the "true form" of the Middle Ages.
The exact origin of the true form diagram in the form of a rune diagram is not clear, but it seems to have originated from the alchemist group. Ge Hong (284-343) was a great theorist who systematized these alchemist traditions, and he believed that the Five Peaks True Form Diagram and the Three Emperors Inner Text were the most effective runes and spiritual texts. Just having these runes protects the house from demons. When Daoist monks enter the mountains in search of herbs, minerals, and mysterious knowledge, they wear these runes on their bodies to resist all threats from nature and demons. [60] Ge Hong's description reflects the contradictory character of these spiritual texts, which are hidden in the mountains and appear only to those who have attained extraordinary achievements; however, they are necessary for entering the mountains and approaching their mysteries:
All the famous mountains and five mountains have this book, but hidden in the hidden place of the stone chamber, those who deserve the Tao, into the mountain and sincerely think, then the mountain god opened the mountain, let people see it. For example, the one who has kept it in the mountains, has set up his own altar and entrusted silk, and often writes a book and goes away. [61]
Therefore, by entering the interior of the mountain, one can obtain the mysterious scriptures and the true shape of the mountain, but only by thinking about these runes can one enter the inside of the mountain. Here, Ge Hong makes it clear that it is necessary to enter the interior of the mountain through the experience of mystical revelation, which is part of all journeys through the mountain.
At the same time that Ge Hong simply mentioned these true shape diagrams, these rune diagrams were quickly integrated into the complex story. The earliest surviving sutra on the True Form of the Five Peaks is the Introduction to the True Form of the Five Peaks, which is associated with the Shangqing Dao. In this sutra, these mysterious runes have greater effect. According to the "Preface to the True Form of the Five Mountains":
"The True Form of the Five Mountains", the image of the landscape and water. Twisting and turning... The Son has the shape of Dongyue, which makes people live in peace and longevity, and lives for a long time... The son has the shape of five mountains, horizontal and vertical, and the four sides of the milon. [62]
The Guben True Shape Map treats The Five Peaks as officials with special powers, giving them an accurate and detailed description of their robes. The most important of these officials was the Eastern Yue Taishan Jun, whose scope of authority was described as follows:
Five thousand nine hundred gods lead the group, the lord of death and life, and the commander of the hundred ghosts. Blood Eating Temple Ancestral Hall Zong Bo also. The gods and spirits of the gods worshipped in the worldly shrines and the dead are all subjected to Taishan's sins. [63]
Thus, the collective imagination of Taoism continues the Han Dynasty conception of Mount Tai as the bureaucratic center after the death of mortals who participated in the sacrifice of the blood-eating gods. The Taoist faction defines itself from the opposite side of these blood-eating sacrifices. [64]
Importantly, in the circulating version of the "Five Mountains True Shape Map", the traditional Yue Mountain is accompanied by "Zuo Ming", and these Mountains of Zuo Ming include: Qingcheng Mountain, LuShan Mountain, Huo Mountain, and Qianshan Mountain. [65] Not only because these mountains were located in the south, which was more accessible to the more limited regimes of the Southern Dynasty, but also because these mountains also had their own special prestige. Both Huoshan and Qianshan served as Nanyue during the Han Dynasty. [66] The inclusion of both mountains in the Five Peaks of the True Form of the Mountains, sayama, indicates that the Taoists were aware of their multiple identities and tried to solve these problems through the consolidation of the bureaucracy.
In this bureaucratic conception, the position of Mount Qingcheng was placed under the rule of the Qingcheng Zhangren. The Qingcheng Zhangren is described as "the main immortal, who is the superior of the Five Mountains, and the chief official of the general group." ”[67]
During the Tang Dynasty, the Taoist idea of the Five Peaks began to control the views of the imperial court. In 731, Emperor Xuanzong of Tang established the True Emperor's Ancestral Hall on top of the Five Peaks and began to worship the True Emperor of the Five Mountains. This was an act of re-elaborating the genealogy of the imperial sacrificial gods in accordance with Shangqing Dao's understanding of the world of gods, and with the help of which Emperor Xuanzong accepted Sima Chengzhen's opinion:[68]
Today, the shrines of the Five Peaks are all gods of the mountains and forests, and the gods of the untruthful are also. All five mountains have cave houses, each of which has a Shangqing Zhenren demotion to his post, and the wind and rain of the mountains and rivers, the yin and yang qi order, are reasonable. Crown badge suits, zo from the gods, all have a number of names. Please don't set up a place to worship. [69]
At the same time as the construction of the shrine dedicated to The Five Peaks, Xuanzong also established a shrine dedicated to the Qingcheng Mountain Zhangzhang and the Nine Angels. [70] This system of sacrifice was thus consistent with the system created in the Five Peaks True Form Diagram.
As mentioned above, the source and dissemination process of the true literature of the Five Peaks True Shape Map is very complicated. However, the story given in his book claims to have been passed down from the Western Queen Mother to Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, and the writing of this document belongs to Dongfang Shuo. This story is thus related to the story cycle of the "Inner Biography of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty". [71] More complex cosmology has been created in similar storytelling systems, such as the Ten Continents. [72] The cosmology of the Ten Continents is based on the cosmic structure of bagua and the twelve earth branches (see Table 1). It fused pre-Qin cosmological concepts such as Kunlun and Sanxian Island (Penglai, Abbot, Fusang)[73] with ten continents in ten directions. Although the names and descriptions of Shizhou are largely taken from earlier sources—including the Weishu of the Han Dynasty, Zhang Hua's (232-300) Naturalist, and Ge Hong's Baopuzi—this cosmology was clearly compiled internally by the Shangqing Dynasty, apparently to replace the Wuyue True Form. Legend has it that the author of the Book of Ten Continents is Dongfang Shuo, who relied on the stories in the Five-Rune Order, which closely followed Dayu's cosmic travels, to describe the revelations in the Ten Continents. We should also note the importance of Zhongshan in the following story:
In its north and overseas, there is Zhong Shan, in the Children of the North Sea... Thirteen thousand miles high, seven thousand miles above, thirty thousand miles around. There are more than 40 kinds of self-growing jade zhi and sacred herbs. There is a golden jade que on it, and it is also the house of yuan qi, and the heavenly emperor also rules the place. [74] To the south of Zhongshan is The Ping evil mountain, the north is jiaolong mountain, the west is Jincao Mountain, the east is Shumu Mountain, and the four mountains and the branches of Zhongshan are also. Four mountains high bell mountain thirty thousand miles. The five official cities are the same. Climb the mountain on all sides and look down to see Zhongshan Er. The Four-Sided Mountain is also the city of the Heavenly Emperor. Immortals come and go in and out of the Tao. All the way from the southeast of Ping Evil Mountain into the cave, it is to Zhongshan North Amenmenye. [75] The Heavenly Emperor is a nine-day dimension, and he is incomparably expensive. Shanyuan Zhouyi has the height of four cities, but beware of Kunlun also. After the flood of Xi Yuzhi was completed, he took a wagon to this mountain with weak water,[76] and worshipped god in Bei'a, and gave a great contribution to the nine days. He also passed through the Five Peaks of the Five Mountains, so that the carved stone could know its number of miles, and its characters were high and low, and the Book of Kedou was not written by the Han people. The number of miles in the present ruler is also the book of Yu Shi. Not only the five mountains are carved, but also the famous mountains, and the only high place of the carved mountains is high. This book is the view of Chen Shuo, the way of his queen mother, and the spirits of Xue Yu do not perform, but the name of Xia in the book is Shan'er. Gu Xizi, the true official of Taishang, used to teach the ministers Kunlun, Zhongshan, Penglai Mountain, and Shenzhou True Shape Map. In the past, he entered the Han Dynasty and stayed to know the deceased. This book is particularly important to the Yue-shaped figure. [77]
The cosmic structure of the Ten Continents
The Five Peaks True Form Diagram adopts Ge Hong's account of how to obtain these rune diagrams, but rewrites them in the far more ingenious and elegant realm of attainment. According to this document, the sacred inner landscape of the Five Peaks and the Mountain of Sasuke was obtained through the Taishang Daojun's "view" of geography. As in the past, the mystical knowledge of the inner form arises from the practice of meditation and is then used as a guide for observing and grasping the true form of the world. The same strategy was then adopted in the Ten Continents to subordinate and encompass the Five Mountains into the broader and mysterious structure of the universe.
bibliography:
[1] The Chronicles of the Later Shangqing Dynasty, DZ 442, p. 4b9; for English translation, see Stephen Bokenkamp, Early Daoist scriptures (Berkeley, 1997), p.348. The Orthodox Taoist documents are identified by "DZ" and numbered according to Kristofer Schipper and Franciscus Verellen eds, The Taoist canon: a historical companion to the Daozang, 3 vols (Chicago, 2004).
[2] The early glyph for "xian" was "僊", which implies "ascension"; the Shuowen notes this word as "immortality". The Shuowen contains another early glyph of the Xianzi character, "仚", which is interpreted as "man on the mountain" (Notes on the Commentaries on the Commentaries on the Interpretation of the Sayings, vol. 8A, p. 38b). Kristofer Schipper likes to translate immortals as "immortal" or even "human mountain"; see The Taoist body (Berkeley, 1993), p. 164. Robert Campany translates it as "transcendent" and admonishes the following: "There is no absolute metaphysical difference between immortals and lower beings, but... Immortals reach much higher links in the chain of life than even the most brilliant human beings can reach"; see To live as long as heaven and earth: a translation and study of Ge Hong's traditions of divine transcendents (Berkeley, 2002), pp.4-5.
[3] I borrowed the term from Anna Seidel in its "Taoism, The unofficial high religion of China," Taoist Resources 7.2 (1997), 39-72.
[4] See Kiyohiko Munakata (Munakata Kiyohiko), Sacred mountains in Chinese art: an exhibition organized by the Krannert Art Museum at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign (Champaign, 1991); Steven Little et al., Taoism and the arts of China (Chicago,2000); and Rolf A. Stein's important research on mythological themes in East Asian art, architecture, and religion, see The world in miniature: container gardens and dwellings in Far Eastern religious thought, tr. Phyllis Brooks (Stanford, 1990), original title and publication information for Le monde en petit: jardins en miniature et habitations dans la pensée religieuse d'Extrême-Orient (Paris, 1987).
[5] Authoritative material is the Yugong chapter in the Book of Shang (or Book of Books); see Mark Lewis, The flood myths of early China (Albany, 2006), pp. 28-33. For a comparative framework of the importance of this story in the Han Dynasty imperial conception, see David Schaberg, "Travel, geography, and the imperial imagination in fifth-century Athens and Han China," Comparative literature 51.2 (1999), 152-91.
[6] Taishang Lingbao Five-Symbol Order, DZ 388 (hereinafter referred to as "Five-Symbol Order").
[7] Edouard Chavannes' research on Tarzan has not yet been surpassed, Le T'ai Chan, essai de monographie d'un culte chinois (Paris, 1910). For a recent study, see Liu Hui, Taishan Dai Temple Examination (Jinan, 2000). For the zen sacrifice, see Mark Lewis, "The feng and shan sacrifices of Emperor Wu of the Han," in Joseph P. McDermott, ed., State and court ritual in China (Cambridge, 1999), pp.50-80. Part of the account of the ceremony by the Han Emperor Liu Xiu (reigned 25-57 AD) has been translated into English, see Stephen Bokenkamp, "Record of the feng and shan sacrifices," in Donald S. Lopez, Jr., ed., Religions of China in practice (Princeton, 1996), pp.251-60.
[8] 五岳的历史，见 James Robson, “Imagining Nanyue: a religions history of the Southern Marchmount through the Tang dynasty (618-907), ” PhD dissertation (Stanford University,2002), pp.44-66.
[9] For example, see The Proof of natural history, vol. 6, p. 2a: "Taishan is known as Tiansun, and yan is the Heavenly Emperor Sun Ye." The Lord calls souls. Everything in the East begins to be formed, and the length of human life is known. ”
[10] For example, Jiushan is consistent with Kyushu in Yugong; see Lewis, Flood myths. The Zhou Li Zhi Fang Clan lists the zhenshans of Kyushu; the Lü Shi Chunqiu (vol. 13, p. 1.5) gives another set of nine mountains; see John Knoblock and Jeffrey Riegel, trs, The annals of Lü Buwei (Stanford, 2000), p.280.
[11] 有关《山海经》，见 Vera Dorofeeva-Lichtman, “Conception of terrestrial organization in the Shan hai jing,” Bulletin de l’Ecole française d’Extrême-Orient 82 (1995), 57-100; 同上，“Text as a device for mapping a sacred space: a case of the Wu Zang Shan Jing (‘Five Treasuries: the itineraries of mountains’),” in Tatyana Gardner and Daniela Moritz, eds, Creating and representing sacred spaces (Göttingen,2003), pp.147-210. 对《淮南子·地形训》的英译和研究，见 John S. Major, Heaven and earth in early Han thought (Albany,1993), pp.141-216. 有关早期中国的地理想象，见 Mark Lewis, The production of space in early China (Albany, 2006), 尤其 pp.284-303.
[12] The literature describing the Kunlun Mountains and the Queen Mother of the West is abundant and beyond the scope of this article. Preliminary findings of these materials can be found in the references attached to the following treatises. Major, Heaven and earth; Lewis, Production of space; Suzanne E. Cahill, Transcendence and divine passion: the Queen mother of the west in medieval China (Stanford,1993).
[13] Notes on Lao Tzu's Thoughts, S. 6825, Obuchi Ninji, Catalogue of the Dunhuang Taoist Classics (Tokyo, 1979), vol. 2, pp. 421-34, lines 108-110; Bokenkamp, Early, p.89.
[14] The Commentary in Three Days, DZ 1205, vol. 1, p. 5b; Bokenkamp, Early, p.215.
[15] This definition is based on the interpretation of the sound teachings of "mountain", see Notes on the Interpretation of The Commentaries on the Commentaries on the Texts, vol. 9B, p. 1; For voice training issues, see W. South Coblin, A handbook of Eastern Han sound glosses (Hong Kong, 1983), pp.14-17; For phonological mimography, see p.188, no.1133: Shan*sria/şǎn Xuan (*sjwa/sywan); see Bernard Karlgren, Grammata serica recensa (repr. Taibei,1992), 164t, 193a.
[16] Spring and Autumn Yuanming Bao, Anju Xiangshan and Nakamura Zhang's Eight Series, Weishu Integration (all 6 volumes, reprinted, Shijiazhuang, 1994), vol. 2, p. 630; cited in Art and Literature Collection, vol. 7, p. 1, and Taiping Imperial Records, vol. 38, p. 2b.
[17] Interestingly, the theme of cave mythology in Taoism and in China as a whole does not seem to contain symbolic imagery of the womb and tomb. These two images are widespread in cultures including Tibet (shared in some other Tibetan Buddhist regions in China), Japan, and Southeast Asian Buddhism; see Rolf A. Stein, Grottes-matrices et lieux saints de la deésse en Asie orientale (Paris, 1988).
[18] For example, the Seven Signatures of Yundi, vol. 6, p. 1a5, cites the Great Treatise on Xuanmen.
[19] 有关灵宝经的系年问题，见 Stephen Bokenkamp, “Sources of the Lingbao scriptures,” in Michel Strickmann ed., Tantric and Taoist studies in honour of R.A. Stein, vol. 2 (Brussels,1983), 2.434-86.
[20] Dongxuan Lingbao Natural Nine Heavenly Born Gods Chapter Sutra, DZ 318, pp. 1b10-p. 2a1.
[21] DZ 318, p. 1b8.
[22] See also The Seven Signatures of Yundi, vol. 2, p. 2a, And the Void.
[23] For a brief history of Daozang, see Schipper and Verellen, 1.1-40. There are at least three different conceptual interpretations of the term Sandong; see ibid., pp. 11-16. For a comprehensive study of the concepts and influences of the fifth-century Daoist compilation project, see Wang Chengwen, "The revelation and classification of Daoist scriptures," in John Lagerwey and Lü Pengzhi eds., Early Chinese Religion, Part Two: The Period of Division (220-589 AD) (Leiden· Boston: Brill, 2010), 775-888.
[24] Biography of Liexian, DZ 294, annotated English translation, in Max Kaltenmark, Le Lie-sien tchouan (repr. Paris,1987).
[25] For a detailed study and English translation, see Campany, To live.
[26] Kaltenmark, Le Lie-sien tchouan, p.43.
[27] Ibid., pp.183-84.
[28] Ibid., p.35.
[29] The Order of the Five Symbols, DZ 388, vol. 2, p. 14a; Campany, To live, pp.309-11.
[30] In the 12th century, this status was recognized by the Song court; see Ni Shouyue (active in the Southern Song Dynasty) Jinhua Chisongshan Zhi (DZ 601). The Chronicle of the Red Pine Mountains of Jinhua begins with an early legend of the Huang brothers, and contains imperial court grants from 1189 to 1263. This belief continues to this day; for a brief study of the beliefs of wong Tai Sin in contemporary Hong Kong, see Graeme Lang and Lars Ragvald, The rise of a refugee god: Hong Kong's Wong Tai Sin (Hong Kong, 1993).
[31] Bokenkamp argues that the Later Noble Path Junliji was originally part of a separate document, the Lingshu Ziwen. The Lingshu Ziwen now exists in the Daozang in the form of four different texts; Bokenkamp, Early Daoist scriptures, pp.275-372. See below, Isabelle Robinet, La révélation du Shangqing dans l'histoire du Taoisme, 2 vols (Paris,1984), 2.101-10. Angelica Cedzich doubted whether the Post-Divine Chronicles were part of the Spiritual Book, see "Review article: Early Daoist scriptures," Journal of Chinese Religions 28 (2000), 161-76; For a discussion of the Post-Noble Chronicles, see p.174.
[32] The Post-Qing Dynasty, DZ 442, pp. 4a2-5; Bokenkamp, English translation, in early Daoist scriptures, p.346.
[33] Yuan Ke, Notes on the Classics of Mountains and Seas (Shanghai, 1980), vol. 2, p. 42, vol. 8, p. 230.
[34] The Order of the Five Symbols, DZ 388, vol. 1, pp. 4a-6b.
[35] Wang Chunwu, The Twenty-Four Examinations of the Heavenly Master's Path (Chengdu, 1996), pp. 319-24. The sacred area of this mountain is described in Du Guangting's pen, see his Records of Mount Qingcheng, edited by Dong Xuan (1740-1818), eds., King Ding Quan Tang Wen (Taipei, 1972), vol. 932, pp. 11a-14b; another article by Du Guangting describes the revelations obtained by Zhang Ling, see Records of the Merits of The Cultivation of Qingcheng Mountain, in ibid., vol. 932, pp. 14b-18a, translated into English at Thomas H. Peterson, "Recorded for the ritual." and merit and virtue for repairing the various observatories of Ch’ing-ch’eng mountain,” Taoist Resources 6.1 (1995),41-55.
[36] Book of Jin, vols. 120, 121; Tang Changru, "The Relationship between Fan Changsheng and Ba Yi, Shu," Historical Research, No. 4, 1954, pp. 115-21; Terry F. Kleeman, Great perfection, religion and ethnicity in a Chinese millennial kingdom (Honolulu, 1998), pp.82-85,147.
[37] The Book of Jin, vol. 121, p. 3036, states that Fan Changsheng "lived in a cave in the rock and sought the Tao and cultivated his mind"; the Book of Wei (vol. 96, p. 2111) described him as "quite a skill", and it is said that he also wrote a mysterious commentary on the I Ching. Tang Shows the commonalities in terminology used by Tianshi Dao and contemporary Sichuan religious practice. But there is still room for debate as to whether these similarities extend to the use of the same cosmology, doctrine, and practice.
[38] Taiping Imperial Records, vol. 123, p. 597a, "Li Xiong" article, quoting in The Spring and Autumn of the Sixteen Kingdoms.
[39] Robient, Révélation du Shangqing, 尤见此书;Ursula-Angelica Cedzich, "Das Ritual der Himmelmeister im Spiegel früher Quellen: Übersetzung und Untersuchung des liturgischen Material im dritten chüan des Teng-chen yin-chüeh," PhD dissertation (Julius-Maximillian-Universität, Würzburg, 1987); Ann Seidel, "Early Taoist ritual," Cahiers d'Extrême-Asie 4 (1988),199-204; Bokenkamp, Early Daoist scriptures, p.6; Schipper and Verellen, The Taoist canon, p.11.
[40] The idea of the Five Peaks needs to be understood as an integral part of the development of the five-element cosmology; see Aihe Wang, Cosmology and political culture in early China (Cambridge, 2000).
[41] Robson, "Imagining Nanyue" and "The polymorphous space of the southern marchmount [Nanyue Nanyue]: an introduction to Nanyue's religious history and preliminary notes on Buddhist-Taoist interaction,” Cahiers d’Extrême-Asie 9 (1995),221-64. Several recent Nanyue studies are included in the book Taoism and Nanyue, edited by the Hunan Provincial Taoist Culture Research Center (Changsha, 2003).
[42] Book of Song, vol. 27, p. 784; see also Biography of a High Monk, T. 2059, vol. 7, p. 368c; Notes on Tang Yongtong, Biography of a High Monk (Beijing, 1992), p. 266.
[43] Several of the Tao Te Ching support Liu Yu's claim to imperial power: The Interpretation of the Scriptures in Three Days, DZ 1205, vol. 1, pp. 8b-9b; see Bokenkamp, Early Daoist scriptures, pp. 221-22; Taishang Dongyuan Sutra, DZ 335, vol. 1, p. 4a, vol. 20, pp. 12b-13a; see Christine Mollier, Une apocalypse taoïste du Ve siècle: le Livre des incantations divines des grottes abyssales (Paris, 1990), pp.56-59. See also Anna Seidel, "The image of the perfect ruler in early Taoist messianism," History of Religions 9 (1970), 216-47.
[44] TaishangDong Xuan LingBao Heaven and Earth Natural Fortune Magic Sutra, DZ 322, pp. 4b1-3.
[45] My interpretation is based on Akira Kikuchi, see his Kashin Dashui Kao, Eastern Religions, 87 (1996), pp. 1-20: Hu, a combination of "ancient" and "moon";
[46] Kou Qianzhi's father, Xiuzhi (修之), was a Taoist monk; Kou Qianzhi's mother was the granddaughter of Lu Zhan, who was Lu Xun's great-grandfather. Recent research on Kou Qianzhi includes three papers by Liu Yi, "Kou Qianzhi's Family Lineage and Life", Hualin, No. 2, 2002, pp. 271-81; "The Relationship between Kou Qianzhi and Southern Taoism", Studies in Medieval Chinese History, No. 2, 2003, pp. 61-82; "The Northern Heavenly Master's Path Behind Kou Qianzhi", Journal of Capital Normal University, No. 1, 2003, pp. 15-25.
[47] 《老君音诵戒经》，DZ 785；Yang Lien-sheng (杨联陞), “Laojun yinsong jiejing jiaoshi,” Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology 28.1 (1956), 17-54. 亦见 John Lagerwey, “The Old Lord’s scripture for the chanting of the commandments,” Purposes, means and convictions in Daoism: a Berlin symposium, Florian Reiter, ed. (Wiesbaden,2006), pp.29-56.
[48] Richard Mather, “K’ou Ch’ien-chih and the Taoist theocracy at the Northern Wei court, 425-451,” in Holmes Welch and Anna Aeidel, eds, Facets of Taoism (New Haven,1979), pp.103-22.
[49] Except for references to their respective mountains, the inscriptions on the two stele are almost identical. My analysis is based on the transcripts and annotations of Zhang Xunliao and Bai Bin, see his "Northern Wei < Zhongyue Song Gaoling Temple Stele >, < Huayue Temple Stele> and Kou Qian's New Tianshi Dao", Zhang Xunliao and Bai Bin, "Chinese Taoist Archaeology", 6 volumes (Beijing, 2006), vol. 2, pp. 575-603.
[50] Zhang Xunliao and Bai Bin, Archaeology of Taoism in China, p. 579.
[51] Zhang Xunliao and Bai Bin, Archaeology of Taoism in China, p. 580.
[52] Ibid. These four names refer to the non-Han dynasties that ruled the northern plains in the fourth and fifth centuries: Liu refers to the Xiongnu who established Former Zhao (304-329), Shi refers to the Later Zhao (319-352) Qiren, Murong refers to the Xianbei people of Former Yan (337-370), Later Yan (384-407), and Western Yan (384-934), and Former Qin (351-394) of the Xianbei people.
[53] In 321, when the Tuoba rulers were given the title of Emperor Huan of Jin, they used "Dai" as the name of the Tuoba state (Book of Wei, vol. 1, p. 9). In 386, after the Tuoba people occupied the north, they changed the name of the country to Wei.
[54] Zhang Xunliao and Bai Bin, Chinese Taoist Archaeology, p. 580.
[55] The following discussion is based on John Lagerwey, Wu-shang pi-yao, somme taoïste du VIe siècle (Paris,1981), pp.4-21.
[56] There are several versions of the Wuyue True Shape Diagram in Daozang: (1) The Preface to the True Form of The Five Mountains, DZ 1281; (2) Volume 79 of the Seven Signatures of Yunji contains several chapters in DZ 1281, but in different orders, some texts are also different, and there are also parts of the content that are not found in DZ 1281; (3) The True Shape Diagram of the Ancient Texts of the Five Peaks of Dongxuan Lingbao, DZ 441, probably in DZ A Ming Dynasty document compiled on the basis of 1281 and related materials (Schipper and Verellen, The Taoist canon, p. 1236) ;(4) Lingbao Immeasurable Human Shangjing Dafa, vol. 21, DZ 219, Wuyue Zhenzhipin contains quotations and differences from DZ 441 and DZ 1281; (5) Tao Hongjing's Tao Gong Zhiyi contains a ritual of teaching the Wuyue True Shape Map. Fragments of the Tao Gong Teaching Instrument are preserved in three Dunhuang volumes (S 3750, P 2559, BD 11252). The First Tokuchi Ninjutsu to be identified in the London and Paris volumes is found in his Dunhuang Daojing: Catalogue (Tokyo, 1978), vol. 1, pp. 331-32; and Dunhuang Daoist Sutra: Catalogue (Tokyo, 1979), pp. 721-24. The editors of the Zhonghua Daozang identified the above-mentioned Beijing volumes as part of this document; three materials were published in volume 4, pp. 521-55. For a study of these documents and runes, see Kristofer Schipper, "Belief in the True Form of the Five Mountains," Taoist Studies, 2 (1967), pp. 114-62; Li Fengyu, "A Study of the > of the < Han Dynasty", including his Study of the Six Dynasties Sui and Tang Dynasty Xiandao Novels (Taipei, 1986), pp. 21-119, especially pp. 52-58; Toshiaki Yamada, Eryu(20000)--Wuyue Zhenzhitu Lingbao Wufu(五福五福), "Treatise on Oriental Studies" 40 (1987), pp. 147-65.
[57] Kristofer Schipper, “The ture form: reflections on the liturgical basis of Taoist art,” 《三教文献》4（2005），页91-113。
[58] See Futu in the Wuyue Ancient Texts, DZ 441, pp. 8b-25b; Shangqing Lingbao Dafa, DZ 219, vol. 21, pp. 16a-22b.
[59] See The Secret of the Three Emperors, DZ 856, pp. 11b-13b. These rune forms appear on inscriptions and mirrors from several late imperial eras. For inscriptions, see Chavannes, T'ai chan, pp. 415-24 (for inscriptions from 1378, 1614[?], 1682. The inscription of the year 1682, reproduced in the book of Kiyohiko Munakata, see Sacred Mountains, p. 113; Little, Taoism, pp. 358-59, discusses the inscription of the year 1604. For a discussion of several mirrors excavated from han to Qing tombs, see Cao Wanru and Zheng Xihuang, "On the True Shape of the Five Mountains of Taoism," Studies in the History of Natural Sciences, No. 6, 1987, pp. 52-57; Li Jinyun, "On the True Mirror of the Five Mountains Unearthed in Taicang," Cultural Relics, No. 2, 1988, pp. 177-78. The most thoroughly studied is Zhang Xunliao and Bai Bin, "The Taoist Five Peaks True Shape Symbol and the True Shape Diagram of the Five Peaks as Seen in the Excavations and Ancient Artifacts of the Ming Tombs in Jiangsu Province", which received his "Chinese Taoist Archaeology" (Beijing, 2006), vol. 6, pp. 1751-1833.
[60] Wang Ming's Proofreading, Baopuzi Inner Textual Interpretation (Beijing, 1996 reprint), vol. 19, pp. 336-37, vol. 17, p. 300.
[61] Wang Ming, "Baopuzi Inner Commentary", vol. 19, 336; see also Schipper's discussion, "The true form," pp. 99ff.
[62] The Introduction to the True Form of the Five Peaks, DZ 1281, pp. 21b-22a; for citation, see Seven Signatures of the Seven Signatures of Yunji, vol. 79, p. 1a, and DZ 441, p. 1a.
[63] The Introduction to the True Form of the Five Peaks, DZ 1281, p. 23a; for citation, vol. 79, pp. 2a9-b1 and DZ 441, pp. 2a6-8.
[64] The fact that Dongyue Temples spread throughout China after the Song Dynasty reflects the importance of Mount Tai and its role as an official of the dead that continued in the imperial era. For the situation in the late imperial era, see several papers published in the "Three Teachings Literature", which are the academic results of the research project of the Beijing Dongyue Temple of the French Far Eastern Academy.
[65] Introduction to the True Form of the Five Peaks, DZ 1281, pp. 24a-25a; for quotations, see Seven Signatures of Yunji, vol. 79, pp. 3b-4a and DZ 441, pp. 3b-4a. The Mountain of Zuoming is also mentioned in this teaching ceremony compiled by Tao Hongjing, Tao Gong Zhiyi (ibid., 56), Receiving Dayuan Nin'er, Dunhuang Daojing: Catalogues, pp. 721-22, Zhonghua Daozang, vol. 4, pp. 521-23.
[66] Robson, “Imagining Nanyue,” p.116; Robson continues the complex debate about where the Southern Mountains actually lie.
[67] The Introduction to the True Form of the Five Peaks, DZ 1281, p. 24a; for citation, see Seven Signatures of Yundi, vol. 79, p. 3b3 and DZ 441, p. 3b1.
[68] For a detailed study, see Lei Wen, "The Ancestral Shrine of the True Emperor of the Five Mountains and the State Sacrifice of the Tang Dynasty", edited by Rong Xinjiang, Religious Beliefs and Society in the Tang Dynasty (Shanghai, 2003), pp. 35-83.
[69] The Biography of Sima Chengzhen, Old Book of Tang, vol. 192, p. 5128.
[70] Lei Wen, "The Ancestral Hall of the True Emperor of the Five Mountains and the State Sacrifice of the Tang Dynasty," pp. 40-42, discusses the inscriptions erected in these places.
[71] 《汉武帝内传》，DZ 292。 翻译见 Kristofer Schipper, L’empereur Wou des Han dans la légende taoïste: Han wou-ti nei-tchouan (Paris,1965); Thomas E. Smith, “Ritual and the shaping of narrative: the legend of Han emperor Wu,” PhD dissertation (University of Michigan,1992); 李丰楙，《汉武帝内传研究》。
[72] This documentation was written by Dongfang Shuo and exists in two versions of daozang: (1) DZ 598; (2) Seven Signatures of Yundi, vol. 26, pp. 1a-14, Ten Continents and Three Islands, translated by Thomas E. Smith, "Record of the ten continents," Taoist Resources 2.2 (1990), 87-119. His research includes Li Fengyu, A Study of the > of the Ten Continents of the <, in which he collected a study of the Six Dynasties, Sui, Tang, and Tang Dynasty Novels, pp. 123-85; Robert F. Campany, Strange writing: anomaly accounts in early medieval China (Albany, 1996), pp.53-54,318-21.
[73] There is too much literature on these fairy islands to list. One of the most enlightening was the infamous island hunting activities ordered by Qin Shi Huang. See Chronicles, vol. 6, 247; William H. Nienhauser Jr., ed., The Grand Scribe's records, vol. 1: The basic annals of pre-Han China (Bloomington, 1994), p. 142. See also Stein, The world in miniature references.
[74] The Book of Ten Continents (DZ 598, pp. 12a6-10) and the Seven Signatures of Yundi (vol. 26, pp. 11b5-8) inherit the Order of the Five Symbols (DZ 388, vol. 1, pp. 4a7-5a1), with slight changes in text.
[75] This passage was erroneously inserted into The Seven Signatures of Yundi, vol. 26, p. 13a7. I am basing on the Ten Continents, DZ 598. For a review of the errors in this version of the Seven Signatures of Yunji, see Li Fengyu's research.
[76] For this method, see Li Fengyu, The Quest for Immortality: Baopuzi (Taipei, 1998), pp. 341-49.
[77] The Ten Continents, HY 598, pp. 12a6-13a7; The Seven Signatures of Yundi, vol. 26, pp. 11b5-12a5, pp. 13a7-13b9.
【About the Author】
Gil Raz received his Ph.D. from Indiana University in 2004 and is currently an associate professor at Dartmouth College. The published book The Rise of Taoism: The Creation of Tradition (Routledge, 2012) examines the formation of the Taoist religious tradition between the 2nd and 5th centuries AD. His research interests include Taoist rituals, history and contemporary, Taoist sacred geography and mythology, the concept of time, Buddhist and Taoist negotiations, Chinese religious systems and concepts.
Editor-in-Charge: Huang Xiaofeng