The original author | Wang Jingyu
Excerpt from | Xu Yuedong
"Chinese Narrative", edited by Pu Andi, translated by Wu Wenquan, Xingsi Culture | Shanghai Far East Publishing House, April 2021
If "narrative" can be defined in the broadest sense as a literary style composed of stories and storytellers, then early Chinese literature naturally had a variety of narrative forms. In addition to common writings such as early myths, legends, and histories, many previous Han philosophical works such as Mencius can also be read as "stories" about what a philosopher did, said, and thought. To explore the early Chinese narrative works that fit this definition in a comprehensive and detailed way, the scale of this article is far from large enough, and it must be discussed in monographs. What I want to do here is to select the work "Zuo Biao" separately and conduct a more detailed study. As we all know, Zuo Zhuan is one of the earliest and most representative historical works in China; more importantly, it has a profound impact on the narrative works of later generations. Therefore, a detailed study will not only lead us to a deeper understanding of early Chinese narrative literature, but also make the entire narrative tradition clear.
Even if I focus only on Zuo Biao, all I can do is tentatively make a few impressionistic observations based on my knowledge of this esoteric work. As you know, there are still some unanswered questions about the book, such as how was the book created? Was it written by one person, or was it compiled from existing literature, and who was the editor? What are the qualities of the text? Is the author's intention to create an independent work, or is it intended to interpret "Spring and Autumn"? I can't do enough to thoroughly study the Zuo Chuan text and explore these important topics, so I'm not sure about it, so this article aims to test a simple analytical model for studying early Chinese narrative literature. It is hoped that the following discussion will promote a more systematic study of early Chinese narrative works, guide such research towards the eventual formation of a general theory of Chinese narrative science, and thus make more useful comparisons between the Chinese narrative tradition and the narrative tradition of other literature.
The model of analysis I am talking about has actually been widely used by Western critics. Simply put, what it does is to disassemble narratives into the most basic components or elements, and then to examine them one by one to discover how they work and interact with the particular work or class of works in question. As for the specific types of narrative elements, it is not so important. In fact, critics often draw up lists of the basic elements that vary. For example, in The Face of the Novel, which is still relevant, E.M Foster discusses the nature of the novel in six titles: story, characters, plot, fantasy, prophecy, pattern, and rhythm.
When Discussing the "Nature and Patterns of Narrative Fiction", the authors of Literary Theory, Welleck and Warren decomposed it into the following elements: plot, character development, background (i.e., "tone" and "atmosphere"), worldview, perspective (i.e., the way the story is told), and so on. It is important to have such a set of terms. For the time being, I think that the four categories that Robert Scholes and Robert Kellogg established in The Nature of Narrative are essential basic elements for any kind of narrative work, whenever and wherever they are. They are: plot, characters, perspective, meaning. Next, I will briefly analyze these narrative elements and examine the operation of each element in a work such as "Left Biography".
"Left Biography" book shadow
The three sub-plot types of Zuo Biao had a major impact on the narrative form of later generations
A plot is an arrangement of events, both psychological and tangible, that have logical relationships to follow. This definition immediately highlights two characteristics. First, as a series of events, the plot is destined to contain a series of changes. Change occurs in time, so the flow of time becomes an integral part of the plot. We are used to the linear flow of time, yet it can be cyclical or even vertical. Indeed, the late Nicholas Berdyaev described the three basic categories of time history in his mind: the universe (cyclical), historical (linear), and existence (i.e., psychological, essentially vertical). Therefore, if we take the movement of events in the story in time as a basic reference, it can be roughly divided into three plot types: circular (Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Dream of the Red Chamber and other stories that tell the rise and fall of an individual's home country), existence (such as "Journey to the West" and other dream-based stories; in dreams, either the chronological order is reversed, or a series of events occurs in a few moments) and linear (most other stories).
Let's look at the second characteristic: a series of events does not constitute a plot by itself. In order to be a plot, the events must be arranged rationally so that the reader can figure out the context. That is to say, the reader is eager to see what happens after that: how a certain character will suffer, how a certain situation will change, whether a crisis will be lifted, how it will be resolved, and so on. Different narrative works naturally have different degrees of logical coherence. In some cases, such as in most Chinese public fiction, the transition between events is controlled to form some sort of causal relationship. In other cases, such as in non-embellished, fact-based works such as chronicles and chronicles, the relationship between events becomes rather fragile, and the only reason the reader continues to read may be that these events happen to have some kind of relationship with the person or historical period he is interested in. However, it is important that even if the plot is relatively loose, its structure will retain a certain degree of logical coherence, otherwise it will not be a plot.
Therefore, the plot is also a pattern, a design arrangement for what happens in time. On a more technical level, a plot refers to how events or episodes in a particular story are arranged. With this definition, we can talk about whether the plot is tight or loose. On a more macro level, the plot refers to the overall outline of the main actions of the story. At this level, we can explore macro issues such as plot types. We have already mentioned public case novels, chronicles, and chronologies. In addition, there are several common plot types in Chinese narrative works: biography, autobiography, travel, adventure, talent and beauty, and dramatic stories (that is, stories with the main focus on solving crises).
The movement of the plot of Zuo Zhuan in time is naturally linear, because it is a chronicle of the main political, social, and military events of the Spring and Autumn Period (722-463 BC). However, the plot of each individual event, especially the well-documented one, is often interrupted by flashbacks, occasionally or even forward-looking. Although not customary, flashbacks are often marked by the word "beginning". Accounts of certain events, such as the death of Zheng Mugong in the third year of Xuangong (606 BC), are written in flashbacks throughout. Narrative foresight is rare, but not without examples. For example, at the beginning of the famous Battle of Chengpu in Jinchu (633-632 BC), the reader already knows the outcome of this war.
The plot type of "Left Biography" is naturally a chronicle: Event A occurs, followed by Event B. However, under the overall chronological pattern, three other major or sub-plot types can still be distinguished, namely biography, travel, and dramatic story. They had a huge impact on the narrative forms of later generations.
Biographical plots naturally focus on characters. Usually, the plot consists of a series of independent events that show the behavior and reactions of the main characters. The reason why it is said to be "independent" is that these events do not necessarily follow each other in a logical relationship or even a strict chronological order. The author adopts this kind of plot, the main purpose is to reveal the protagonist's dominant personality characteristics, and the relevant events only play a depictive role. As long as the logical order is clear and legible, the specific order of events is not a big deal. Event A can precede or later than Event B, and there is no difference. The best example of this kind of situation is what happened between the nineteenth year of Lu Xianggong (554 BC) and the twentieth year of Lu Zhaogong (522 BC) in the life of Zheng Guo's son.
Dr. Zheng Guo gave birth
There is only one example of the journey included in the Zuo Zhuan, but it is very famous, that is, the gongzi chong'er between the twenty-third and twenty-fourth years of the Lu Dynasty (637-636 BC), that is, the exile of the later Jin Wengong. The plot is quite similar to the biography, and only involves one protagonist. Of course, the biggest difference between the two is that the protagonist here has to be displaced and wander the countries. Therefore, it is interesting not only the protagonist himself, but also what he saw and encountered in exile. Thus, the elements of action and risk-taking have also become the focus of attention. Moreover, events no longer seem to be placed haphazardly, and even if they appear loose, they are connected by the process of exile.
Of the three plot subtypes of The Left, dramatic stories best fit Aristotle's concept of plot. The focus is clearly on action, usually involving the formation and resolution of crises between evenly matched parties. Thus, in this type of plot, the events are often sequential, more logical than the other two subtypes, the story is more compact, and the events are followed by one until the conflict is resolved. The best example is the detailed portrayal of the war in "Zuo Biao", which is praised by the world, not a waste of time.
The characters in "Left Biography" have distinct personalities
Acting requires actors, and stories are indispensable to characters. Characters are another indispensable element of narrative literature. In fact, some critics argue that in terms of importance, the characters are the first of all narrative elements. Foster devotes two chapters to what he calls "characters," while the other elements are covered in one chapter. Similarly, in his monograph Characters and Novels, W.J. Harvey believes that the criticism of modern fiction "weakens the characters" is a worrying situation, and is determined to correct the chaos. There is a lot to explore in the category of people. Here only two points of investigation are selected: one is the type of character, and the other is the portrayal of the character.
People are categorized in a variety of ways. For example, according to their social status and moral standards, there are the following main types in the Zuo Zhuan: the wise and powerful, the evil emperor, the shrewd loyalist, the arrogant and powerful traitor, the poor worm who ignorantly believes in righteousness, the selfless woman with foresight, the red face of the snake and scorpion, and the humble servant who sacrifices herself to defend the incompetent evil lord.
The characters of "Left Biography" are not described in this way to reduce them to stereotypical archetypes. As we all know, "Left Biography" is famous for portraying many characters with distinct personalities. For example, The Duke of Jin Wen and the Duke of Qin Mu belong to the same list of Ming Emperors, but the two are very different. On the one hand, Qin Mugong was more self-conscious, often ignoring the advice of his subordinates. But the good thing is that he can detect his mistakes in time and is willing to make up for them. Even so, it is not useless to establish these broadly defined types, as long as we remember that they are just types, nothing more. Such a classification not only gives us insight into the meaning of the work itself, but also makes it easier for us to compare it with later works, especially when we are interested in examining the historical evolution of certain fundamental moral concepts. For example, in The Left Biography, good rulers have two of the most prominent qualities, one is willing to accept the advice of others, and the other is concerned about the suffering of ordinary people.
When it comes to characterization, it is possible to divide the characters into two categories, namely the "flat" characters and the "round" characters that Foster called them, or the "static" characters and "dynamic" characters that Willeck and Warren liked to use. From the "Zuo Zhuan" to the entire Chinese narrative literature, there are a large number of static characters, which is quite remarkable. Throughout the story, the static characters remain intact from beginning to end. As he reads, his main characteristics become clearer, but there is no substantial change in emotion, morality, or intellect. This is true even in the context of the trip. Although the protagonist has experienced many people and things along the way, it is said that there will be changes. Although gongzi heavy ears in order to avoid disasters, after nineteen years, traveled to eight countries, but before the disaster, the gongzi heavy ears before the disaster and after the disaster he was essentially no different.
Therefore, in "Left Biography", it seems that once the character is fixed to a certain type, it is usually stable, and there is very little possibility of breakthrough. The story of King Chu Ling provides a rather vivid example: a tyrant tried to change his mind, but in the end he failed. One of the many shortcomings of this monarch was that he turned a deaf ear to the sufferings of his people for the sake of grand plans of expansion, in order to dominate other princely states. Once, however, after the painstaking advice of Zai Zaizige, he was determined to completely change his habits of extravagance and obscenity. For several days, he slept soundly and was anxious to find a way to self-discipline. But it turned out that he couldn't do it at all, and in the end he returned to his old ways.
The only counterexample I can find is Wu Wangfu cha, whose temperament has changed dramatically. However, this is an example of how it changes from good to bad. His father fought against the Vietnamese country and was seriously wounded and died, after which he ordered people to stand in the court, always reminding him not to forget his father's vendetta. Three years later, he conquered the Yue Kingdom and took revenge. However, from then on, he abandoned good and followed evil, lived a comfortable and absurd life, and refused to listen to the advice of loyal servants, resulting in the country eventually being destroyed by the Country of Vietnam, and he was forced to commit suicide.
"Eastern Zhou Kingdoms, Spring and Autumn Chapter" Wu Wang Fucha stills
Character portrayal refers to the author's shaping or depiction of characters. Zuo Zhuan often portrays characters through dialogue, behavior, and other character evaluations, and most later works have followed these techniques. The authors of "Left Biography" rarely speak directly about the type of character. Moreover, although the costumes of the characters are occasionally depicted, their physical characteristics are never directly described, which is different from later works.
Moreover, the portrayal of the psychological activities of the characters is common in the West, and it is often used in later Chinese narrative works, but in "Zuo Biao", there is almost no trace of this approach, and the reasons for this will be discussed in the next section. The only exception I've seen is in the form of an inner monologue. The tyrant Jin Linggong could not bear the repeated advice of his loyalist Zhao Dun, so he sent Qiu Que to carry out an assassination in the early morning of one day. However, when he arrived at the Zhao Mansion, he saw zhao dun making preparations for the emperor in a disciplined and respectful manner, and his heart was quite touched, so he quietly withdrew when he came, sighing: "Don't forget respect, the lord of the people." The Lord of thieves, unfaithful, abandons the king's command, does not believe. There is one here, it is better to die also. "He died by touching his head to the locust tree." But even so, we can infer that this speech was spoken loudly, so it was given to others.
The Left Has obvious advantages in adopting the perspective of a third-person omniscient narrator
The story is told. The author chooses the narrator and tells the story through his eyes and consciousness. However, the choice of narrator has a huge impact on the meaning or literary effect that the author wishes to convey to the audience or reader. This brings us to the question of perspective in narrative art. This narrative element has attracted much attention in modern novel criticism, especially in Anglo-American fiction. Some critics even assert that the whole of the narrative method is the manipulation of perspective. Parsy M. Lubbock said, "In the art of fiction, the whole complex and delicate methodological problem, I think, is subject to the problem of perspective, that is, the relationship between the narrator and the story. "Similarly, Robert M. Scholes and Robert Kellogg argue that perspective is not only the essence of narrative art, but also its uniqueness, "poetry and dramatic literature do not have this element."
Broadly speaking, in narrative literature, we can distinguish between two perspectives. For convenience, it can be simply referred to as first-person and third-person. The first-person "I" can be divided into the witness "I" (purely observing or reporting what he sees, hears, and reads) and the "I" who participates in the whole plot. Similarly, the third-person narrator can convey only what he knows, or he can be a true God-like being, with a deep understanding of the innermost thoughts and intimate emotions of the characters in the story.
Wayne Booth rightly points out, "Perhaps the distinction between personal names is overemphasized." ...... Saying that a story is told in the first or third person doesn't tell us anything important unless we're more precise about how the narrator's characteristics relate to a particular effect. This is a reasonable statement for a certain level of discussion. However, in an overview of the entire Chinese narrative tradition, the concept of perspective allows us to distinguish between two different narrators, which not only helps to explain the extreme lack of first-person narrators in traditional Chinese narrative works, but also helps to explain the gradual shift of the third person from a pure recorder to an omniscient narrator.
As one of the earliest narrative texts of Chinese literature, Zuo Zhuan provides the best illustration for narrators who are merely recorders. Throughout the book, he is omnipresent, posing as a third-person witness, reporting to the reader what he has seen and heard, while himself is placed outside the events reported. Even if they take the initiative to put forward their own judgment and repeatedly comment on people or events, the attitude of outsiders has not changed. (If, according to some scholars, the passages that begin with "Gentleman's Tale" are regarded as additions to later generations, then such interventions by the narrators of the Zuo Zhuan are relatively rare.) ）
As for information that only the omniscient narrator can know, he rarely touches on it. As we have noticed in the previous article, "Zuo Biao" does not directly portray the psychology of the characters, which is why. We can hear and see the words and deeds of others, but how can we, who lack omniscience, get a glimpse of what others really think? This generally objective and calm approach is further reflected in the book's straightforward, objective, and quiet writing style. For example, King Xiang of Zhou sent Zaikong to give Qi Huan the sacrificial meat (胙), and when the latter received the reward, there were four different actions in succession, that is, coming down from the stage, saluting the messenger, ascending the stage again, and receiving the sacrificial meat, and the original text was only expressed in the four Chinese characters of lower, worship, deng, and acceptance. The author's ability to go beyond the necessary vocabulary in the narrative is admirable. Throughout the book, adjectives are extremely rare and adverbs are even fewer, thus forming an overall effect of cold, unpolished original vitality, which is unique in Chinese literature.
For historical works such as Zuo Biao, there is a clear advantage to adopting the perspective of a third-person omniscient narrator. In this way, the author can give a vivid and dramatic depiction of the event, while its credibility will not be questioned by the reader. The narrator is telling his "own eyes" and thus has absolute authority over his version of the story. However, adopting this perspective also brings some inconvenience to the author. Because the narrator cannot reach the characters directly, but can only convey their actions and speeches, the reader sometimes doubts the true motives behind the actions of certain characters. In this way, the artistic intent of the text becomes ambiguous, ultimately making it impossible for the reader to understand the true meaning of the story. The famous story of Zheng Zhuanggong and his mother and brother is a strong proof.
Most of the commentaries I have read have been critical of Zheng Zhuanggong in this incident, labeling him as sinister, poisonous, and hypocritical. But is he really like that? How will you deal with your unruly brother and partial mother, who is a bystander? Duke Zheng zhuang obeyed his mother's wishes and gave his younger brother Gongshu Duan various privileges. At the end, Gongshu Duan openly rebelled and prepared to attack the capital of Zheng Guoguo with his mother Li Yingwai. Only then did Zheng Zhuang launch a counterattack and expel Gongshu Duan from Zheng Guo. Momentarily enraged, he banished his mother to another city and vowed never to see her again, but then regretted his impulse and went through twists and turns to welcome her back to the capital.
"Eastern Zhou Dynasty, Spring and Autumn" Zheng Zhuanggong stills
As an elder brother and son, Zheng Zhuanggong's behavior may not be exemplary enough, but on the other hand, from the perspective of the story itself, it is difficult to understand his harsh evaluation. I think that his attitude towards his mother is particularly hypocritical, and it should be said that it reveals his true and complex human nature. Among the characters I have seen in "Zuo Biao", Zheng Zhuanggong belongs to the most authentic and credible category.
In the other chapters of zuo chuan around Zheng Zhuanggong, it can be further seen that it is likely that he is not an evil figure in terms of the author's intentions. In those chapters, he was a decent man, discerning right from wrong, and making a determined effort to become an enlightened monarch. For example, in the tenth year of the Duke of Lu (713 BC), Lu, Qi, and Zheng jointly attacked the Song state that disobeyed Zhou Tianzi. Zheng Zhuanggong captured two cities of the Song Dynasty, but did not take them for himself, but handed them over to the State of Lu, because the status of the Duke of Lu was higher than his own. Such a generous act obviously shocked the author, and he issued the following praise in the way of "gentleman's name": "Zheng Zhuanggong can be described as justified. Do not covet the king's orders, do not covet his land to the king, and the right body is also. Even if this comment is added by posterity, a "sinister, poisonous, and hypocritical" tyrant cannot do such a righteous deed as Zheng Zhuanggong.
It is not intended to prove here that all other commentators' interpretations of Zheng Zhuanggong's character are wrong. If the author can take the initiative to reveal the real motives behind Zheng Zhuanggong's behavior, even if it is only a little, the confusion and fallacy in understanding can certainly be avoided.
The Zuo Zhuan gives its own version and understanding of the Spring and Autumn Period
For the author, the design of the plot, the portrayal of the characters, and the use of perspective have only one purpose: to effectively convey his meaning, or whatever he wants to express, to the reader. Therefore, for the reader, the discussion of the plot, the characters, and the perspective also has only one purpose: to try to dig out what the author is trying to convey. Therefore, for the author, meaning is generally a matter of artistic creation, while for the reader, it is first and foremost a matter of interpretation. Here I define "meaning" simply as the overall intent of the work that is actually realized in the text.
Of course, to obtain the meaning expressed by the author in the work, it is often easier said than done. When it comes to narrative works, even the simplest stories involve at least four sets of relationships: author and narrator, narrator and character, character and character, and author and reader. (In contrast, there are only two sets of relationships in poetry, namely the author and the speaker, and the author and the reader; there are three groups in the play, namely the author and the actor, the actor and the actor, and the author and the audience.) In order to figure out what the author is trying to express in his work, it is a very painful experience to carefully navigate these sometimes complex relationships.
When it comes to works such as Zuo Biao, whose authorship and creative nature are not yet clear as mentioned above, this task is even more daunting, if it is possible to complete. There have been already monographs on how to determine the intention of the author in a literary work. However, when it comes to interpretive issues, perhaps the most important thing to remember is to keep an open mind and be as flexible as possible. Any method that seems strange can be used as long as it helps to understand the text, and any bit of information, whether directly from the text or not, can be relevant and worth referencing.
So, in general, what is the meaning that the authors of "Left Biography" are trying to convey to the reader? When we read it, our first reaction was that it was a realistic work designed to vividly depict people and events from a particular historical period. However, it didn't take long for us to notice that the part we had read was showing a pattern. As the reading progresses, this pattern persists, leaving one to doubt the correctness of the first reaction. We begin to wonder: Does the author really just want to present specific details, or is he intended to propose some general moral principle about life? Simply put, the pattern is that the stupid, arrogant, and evil usually take their own fault; the good, wise, and humble tend to be virtuous.
The story of Zhao Dun and Jin Linggong mentioned above vividly portrays the conflict between good and evil. On one side was an evil tyrant, standing on a high platform, shooting people with a slingshot for fun—the cook's bear paw was not stewed, and he did not hesitate to order his execution. On the other side are good, loyal, and conscientious ministers who risk their lives in order to return the evil lord to the right path. Jin Linggong twice sent people to assassinate Zhao Dun, but with the help of others, the latter was able to escape twice, both because the rescuer had benefited from him or admired him for his integrity. In the end, the Duke of Jinling was killed by the Assassins, and Zhao Dun, although blamed for not stopping the execution of the king, continued to serve as an official in the mother country.
Patton W. Woofer once concluded: "[The Left] is a manual of moral causality, a system of prophecies based not on numbers or omens, but on the real and recognizable moral models of human history, which are more complex but extremely credible." Although I agree with HuaSheng that the book is by no means just a collection of stories and anecdotes, but that there is a general principle running through it, I will not unthinkingly conclude that it is a moral "manual" or a prediction "system." In this case, the author is most likely to be regarded as a moralist, which is contrary to his intentions. This also means that he is merely using history to elucidate certain preconceived moral concepts, which in effect turns him into an allegory.
However, Zuo Biao is certainly not an elaborately woven fable. The model discussed above is not perfect enough to be without exceptions. Although most conspirators and murderers do not seem to die well, there are also many innocent people who are persecuted and killed for no reason, and there are several well-known examples, such as Wei Gongzi Qi and Gongzi Shou, Jin Gongzi Shensheng, and Chu Guofu Fu Wan. Moreover, there is a wealth of content in the book that can be considered a purely straightforward historical narrative. Therefore, it is possible to regard Zuo Biao as a historical work closer to the truth, even if it is a history book with distinct moral tendencies. This pattern is not predetermined, but is discovered by the author in the events he tells. In other words, it represents the author's own interpretation of the meaning of historical events.
If our speculations about its nature based on the contents of the Zuo Biao are correct, then its author's view of history is indeed quite modern. For him, history is clearly not a sequence of events. If nothing else, history means at least an effort to make connections between the isolated events listed, to find some meaning in the chaotic and incoherent past. Louis Kemp, in On Modernism, views modern historical writing this way:
"The standout mark of modern historical writing is the emphasis on facts, a point that has become a cliché. In fact, the opposite view is closer to the truth: true historical concern is only manifested when the overemphasis on facts is no longer important. For it is only then that we can understand the nature of historical development, rather than hastily arguing that the arrangement of events implies the course of historical development. It is only when history ceases to be a simple retelling of political facts that causality in history can become the focus of attention. This is because history must construct a narrative that correlates events that were once isolated but yet presented with a certain relationship. ”
To a large extent, this seems to be what the author of "Left Biography" tried to do in the book. Kemp went on to say: "We have to rewrite history again and again, and that is our destiny. What the author of Zuo Biao did was only to give his own version and understanding of the Spring and Autumn Period in Chinese history.
From this point of view, although the author's way of presenting historical materials in the book does not seem to be "scientific" enough, there are many anecdotes, which does not seem to be improper. Then again, isn't history also telling stories? W.B. Jaly writes in Philosophical and Historical Understanding:
"If the physical sciences always have theories, then there are always stories in historical research. In the former, there are always temporary theories that guide experimental research, even if the results of the research will eventually overturn it and replace them with new theories; in the latter, there are always initial or temporary theories as guiding principles, drawing one evaluation, interpretation and criticism after another, leading historians to final judgments about the nature of historical events, or to find out what really happened in history. ”
In Elements of fiction, Robert Scholes proposes a similar line of thought for the so-called categories of fiction, with "history" and "fantasy novels" at both ends; he concludes: "Today, only the angels who record all the actions of men without distortion or deletion deserve to be called 'pure' historians. Only the kind of gods who create a world by their own imagination deserve to be called 'pure' fantasists. The eyes of mortals cannot see the two ends of this range. All the history recorded by mankind has become fiction. All human fantasies, however far-fetched, bear resemblance to real life. ”
The same view reappears in The Nature of Narrative: "Novels merge with history, biographies, and autobiographies for two reasons: first, the reader is tired of the storyteller's fantasies, and second, contemporary people are skeptical about whether they can fully objectively (i.e., non-fiction) understand what people think and do." Science seems to have proved that Aristotle's distinction between history and fiction is only in degree, not in scope. All knowledge and all words are subordinated to artistic tradition. Our understanding of reality is subject to culturally determined types, so we can only describe a particular event in a seemingly realistic and fictional way; in giving the event a motive, a cause, and an effect, it is not based on absolute truth, but on our greatest understanding. "The author of "Zuo Biao" uses the available materials to tell the story of the Spring and Autumn Period, and in fact presents us with the history of that era.
The plot, characters, perspectives, and meanings together form a dynamic and organic artistic whole
For the sake of analysis, I distinguished the four basic elements of the narrative and discussed them one by one through "Left Biography". Of course, in reality, we can't always easily distinguish between these elements. Henry H. James has a quote that is often quoted: "What can characters do but decide the plot?" What else can a plot do besides portraying characters? Similarly, the relationship between other elements can be expressed in this way. Even in previous discussions, we have seen that these elements are so closely related that it would take some effort to focus on just one. In more successful narrative works, such as Zuo Biao's depiction of many war scenes, these elements often blend perfectly to form a dynamic artistic whole. To illustrate this point, let's briefly analyze the battle of Chengpu mentioned earlier.
The Battle of Chengpu between the Jin and Chu dynasties, which took place in 632 BC, was the largest and most significant war among the countless military conflicts between feudal lords during the Spring and Autumn Period. The focus of the dispute between the two countries is the de facto control of the core areas of northern China. The State of Chu was located in the south, far from the center of Spring and Autumn affairs, but its strategic terrain and fertile land made several generations of monarchs committed to exerting a more positive influence on important matters in the central region of China.
In 643 BC, Duke Huan of Qi, a powerful ally of the Zhou imperial family's vassal states, died, and the opportunity for the Chu state to exert its fists and feet finally appeared. In the years that followed, its ambitions seemed imminent. Under the coercion of the Chu state, smaller states such as Chen, Cai, Xu, and Zheng expressed their allegiance one by one. However, the defeat at the Battle of Chengpu frustrates the Chu state's efforts to expand its sphere of influence into the Central Plains, and the Jin state indisputably becomes the new hegemon of the northern princes, thus forming a certain balance of power between the Jin and Chu. It was not until the late Spring and Autumn period when two emerging powers, Wu and Yue, appeared in the south that this balance was broken.
Battle of Chengpu
The author of "Zuo Biao" naturally understands the significance of this war. As a result, he used the full power of a storyteller to create outstanding chapters that would be proud of similar works of the same period. The author's clear, concise and clear narrative when dealing with this complex and major war incident can quite represent the overall narrative style of "Zuo Biao".
The plot of the story is quite dramatic, involving a military conflict between two equal countries. Therefore, the focus of attention is on specific events, which can be clearly divided into beginnings (many events that lead to direct conflict), development (direct conflict, that is, the battle itself) and ending (the collapse of the Chu army, the sudden increase in prestige and strength of the Jin state, and the arrogance among the princes). However, it is worth noting that no matter how exciting and ups and downs a series of events in a story may seem in isolation, the plot is not a mechanical series of these events. Instead, the story shows that the overall development and outcome of the conflict is closely related to the personalities of the two protagonists, Chu General Ziyu and Jin Wengong.
The end of the war is secretly predestined at the beginning of the story. The Chu state in front of the reader makes Yin Ziyu cruel and ruthless and insensitive. The previous commander, Yin Ziwen, was in command of the army and spent only half a day to complete the soldiers and horses exercise, while Ziyu not only spent a whole day, but also whipped seven soldiers and pierced the ears of three soldiers with arrows. Therefore, we will find out how sharply criticized by Hu Jia: "Zi Yu is rude and rude, and cannot govern the people." Over three hundred times, it cannot be used to enter. And he had a premonition of the fate of the defeat of the Chu State. In the subsequent plot, many thought-provoking details further confirm Ziyu's character flaws.
Even at the last moment, if Ziyu had not been stubborn and arrogant, and had openly disobeyed the monarch's order to remove the siege of the Song dynasty, a head-on confrontation and a disastrous outcome could have been avoided. The whole war became his own business: not as a concrete step in the national policy of expanding his strength and expanding his influence, but as a good opportunity to show off the military talents of the commander-in-chief. Therefore, at the time of the battle, he arrogantly declared that "there will be no Jin today", and the reader understands that the fate of the Chu army has been determined, and Ziyu's personal fate is also determined. The details that best reveal Ziyu's personality are probably found in the flashback at the end of the story: he refuses to dedicate his jade-encrusted skin to the river god who promised to help him win. This incident undoubtedly vividly portrayed his miserly and selfish character, and even more highlighted his extreme conceit. He was arrogant and unwilling to accept any advice or help from the gods.
On the contrary, Ziyu's opponent, Jin Wengong, was extremely rational, willing to listen to the pertinent opinions of his subordinates at any time, always cautious in words and deeds, and did not lose his law. However, although he was willing to consult others and do things in a disciplined manner, he was not a stupid and weak commander. When the two warriors were upset and Wei Li disobeyed, he beheaded the former and demoted the latter, clearly showing his iron fist.
Because of this, his generals and courtiers generally formed a very harmonious group, and the wise men could be wholeheartedly supported by others. In addition, Jin Wengong was extremely cautious and did not have any optimism about the outcome of the war. He was reluctant to take the initiative to attack until he had gained diplomatic and moral advantage. Even when the war broke out, he was still anxious, and the book vividly portrayed his anxiety when he heard the sergeant sing, and the dream on the eve of the battle that the King of Chu had bitten his brain marrow. Therefore, after the battle began, we were not surprised to see that the Jin army planned carefully and methodically to crush the opponent.
The plot and characters generate meaning accordingly. Since Jin Wengong was an enlightened and wise man, and the war ended in his victory, the moral lessons drawn from it could not be clearer. However, the reader's failure to grasp the significance of the event does not matter, and the author himself, who did not hesitate to stand up, put aside the posture of the previous objective reporter, and explained the reason for the victory of Jin Wengong before the beginning of the story: "Out of the hub, out of the Song Siege, the first world war and hegemony, the teaching of literature also." "The plot, characters, perspectives, and meanings are fused in a narrative work, supporting each other and jointly constructing a dynamic and organic artistic whole."
The author | Wang Jingyu
Edited | Anya
Introduction Proofreading | Wu Xingfa