In the late Edo period, the situation in Japan and abroad changed dramatically, which not only promoted the widespread acceptance of foreign literature in Japan, but also served as a catalyst for the flourishing of Western juku at that time. In the face of the threat of force from overseas, Japanese intellectuals were eager to absorb the advanced science and technology of the West in order to defend themselves against the enemy. But what path did they end up taking? Where will this path to Westernization and modernization lead Japan? Let's find out.
The shogunate's external pressure and domestic reforms were on the rise
In the mid-to-late Edo period, Japan experienced the dual challenges of a severe situation at home and abroad. On the one hand, the Western powers constantly put pressure on Japan to open the country and open its ports. In 1853, the U.S. fleet advanced into the Uraga waterway, forcing Japan to sign an unprecedented "Peace Treaty" with the United States, and Japan was forced to end its more than two-century-long policy of seclusion, open ports such as Kanagawa and Yokohama, and admit American consuls to be stationed at the same time. This was undoubtedly a huge blow to the dignity of the samurai regime in Japan.
On the other hand, the social contradictions that had accumulated in Japan for a long time intensified during this period. Divisions within the ruling class have become increasingly severe, and the contradictions between the anti-shogunate forces and the conservative forces supporting the shogunate have intensified as never before. This, coupled with the social unrest caused by population growth and economic stagnation, led to large-scale peasant uprisings and urban uprisings.
In the face of internal and external troubles, some far-sighted people realized that Japan must be physically fit in order to protect itself. They called for advocating reform and reform, absorbing the advanced science, technology, ideology, and culture of the West, with a view to catching up with and surpassing the West, and eventually assimilating them into a new part of Eastern culture. In the midst of this wave of thought, Japanese intellectuals actively learned from the West, and Lanxue and Westernism came into being, making full ideological preparations for Japan's later founding and reform.
Intellectuals were keen on Western studies and devoted themselves to introducing Western literary and artistic concepts
Among the pioneers of the introduction of Western literary and artistic ideas in the late Edo period, Natsume Soseki was highly regarded. As one of the first intellectuals in Japan to come into contact with Western Romantic literature, Soseki went to England in 1884 as a government-sponsored student, where he broadened his horizons and became fascinated by the works of English Romantic writers. After returning to Japan, he translated the poems of Bryton and Shelley to Japan, and vigorously disseminated the concept of romantic literature and art in his works.
Soseki believes that Western Romantic literature emphasizes the emancipation of individuality, the admiration of natural feelings, and the pursuit of idealism, which is in stark contrast to the sophistication and functionalism of classical Japanese literature. He hoped to draw on advanced Western ideas and inject new vitality into Japan's conservative and outdated literary circles. In 1906, Soseki's masterpiece "I Am a Cat" was published, which used the perspective of a third-person novel to reflect and critique the dark side of Japanese society at that time through the perspective of a stray cat. This Westernized writing technique caused an uproar in the Japanese literary world.
Another outstanding poet who integrated the ideas of Western Romantic poetry to create a Japanese romantic style was Masaoka Shiki. Zigui was fond of English poetry in his early years, and he treasured the poems of the English romantic poets Byron, Keats, and Wordsworth. In 1888, he wrote "Frog Singing and Cicada", which is regarded as the pioneering work of Japanese romantic poetry, with simple and natural words and expressive images, describing a poetic picture of rural life.
Zigui's poems are good at expressing the romantic feelings of nature and freedom, and the poems are simple and unpretentious, but full of profound philosophies. The cuckoo, a masterpiece published in 1901, is a classic masterpiece of romantic poetry. The whole poem takes the loneliness and loneliness of the azalea as the central image, expressing the emotion of the ephemeral impermanence of beautiful things. Zigui wrote in the poem: "How many rhododendrons are left in the twilight / Alone to pity the twilight / The wind and rain / What is there to rely on? These romantic words all exude the poet's devotion and dedication to life.
The tutors are enthusiastic about promoting Western literature and cultivating modern literary and artistic talents
In the late Edo period, with the growing tide of Western learning to the East, a large number of Western schools came into being, which became an important position for the dissemination of Western literary and artistic thoughts. One of the most prestigious is the Bunenkaku Western-style Juku, which is located in Edo.
Founded by the enlightened scholar and thinker Murata Rijin, Bunenkaku aims to teach Western languages such as English and French to Japanese doujin, and to introduce Western literature and philosophy to a wide range of Western literary and philosophical ideas. Murata has been to Europe and the United States many times, and has been deeply influenced by Western culture, and he advocates "promoting the elegant sound of our country, and singing the remaining posture of Yiqu", hoping to absorb the essence of Western studies and bring a new atmosphere to the Japanese literary world.
Wenyuange has gathered a group of talented teachers, such as Shigeno Yassin, Sakurada Haruju and others. They are not only fluent in English and French, but also have an in-depth study of Western poetry and fiction. Here, young Japanese talents received a systematic Western-style education, learned skills such as writing, debate, and recitation, and received the baptism of cutting-edge literary and artistic trends such as romanticism and realism. It was here that groups of young people with literary aspirations completed the modern transformation, laying the foundation for the rise of Meiji New Literature.
Another well-known Western-style juku is Bungadodo in Kyoto. It was founded by the literati industrialist Ito Sodo and hired a number of highly respected scholars to teach, such as Genichiro Fukuchi and Kanshige Hattori. The educational purpose of Wenyatang is to focus on cultivating pure literary talents, and do not do any utilitarian teaching.
Ito Sodo advocates the idea of "reviving the art of poetry in the world" and hopes that through the establishment of Western schools, the essence of Western pure literature can be spread to Japan. Therefore, they focus on the works of the English Renaissance and Romantic periods in their teaching, and use them as a model, advocating that students write pure poetry and prose. The school spirit of Wenyatang is honest and rigorous, and Sutang is often proud of its "not selling literature" and living a simple life. His dedication to pure literature has cultivated many literati who have departed from utilitarian pursuits, and has had a certain impact on the atmosphere of the literary world in the future.
The popular frenzy of reading Western novels calls for new literary forms
In the late Edo period, with the opening of Japan to the Western world, European literature began to enter Japan, setting off a reading frenzy among the general public. Among them, the most popular and far-reaching influence is a group of European knight novels full of romance.
The anonymous work "Crane in the Clouds" became an instant hit when it was published in Japan in 1835, and it was later discovered that it was an abridged translation of the German medieval knightly narrative poem "Pachfar". Through twists and turns in the plot, the novel depicts the story of the knight Patch Farr's hardships in his pursuit of love and justice. The work is full of the imagination of romantic literature, with a novel structure and bizarre plot twists and turns, which give people a deep impression. "Crane in the Clouds" quickly swept the country, and stage plays and woodcut paintings emerged one after another, which shows its great influence.
Soon after, more European medieval knightly novels spread in Japan, such as "The Legend of the White Snake" and "Princess Conli". Most of these works came from Germany and France, and they depicted the heroic and romantic images of knights, which were undoubtedly as fresh and inviting as mushrooms for the Japanese citizens who lived in a monotonous life at that time. For a time, the image of knights became a popular fashion, and people were keen to copy their words and deeds, and even a popular word appeared in the name of "white horse knight".
In addition to Western chivalric novels, there was also a new craze for classical Chinese novels among the people of the Edo period. Among them, "Dream of Red Mansions" is undoubtedly the most widely read work. It was first published in Japan as early as 1673, but it had a limited print run and a narrow circulation. It was not until the mid-to-late Edo period that the "Red Tree" gradually became widely circulated among the common people.
In the late Edo period, some people of insight, such as Yamagyo Toyo and Yasunaga Oyo, began to pay attention to popularizing the classics of Chinese literature and comparing them with Western Romantic literature. In the preface, they praised the unique tone and romantic feelings of "Dream of Red Mansions", "The reserved temperament, delicate and delicate mood of the rich family, and the portrayal of the sad and glamorous world are as intoxicating as intoxicating dreams, which are intoxicating." Because of this strong recommendation, the public's enthusiasm for "Red Tree" can be seen.
During the Edo period, learning from the West spread to the East, laying the foundation for the Meiji Restoration
In the middle and late Edo periods, Japanese intellectuals widely accepted Western literary and artistic trends, which laid an important foundation for the modern transformation of the Japanese literary scene and the Meiji Restoration.
During this period, a group of pioneers, such as Natsume Soseki and Masaoka Shiki, introduced romantic literature to Japan, and their works reflected a strong romantic atmosphere in terms of subject matter and language style. At the same time, Western literary and artistic works such as European chivalric novels were widely circulated among the people, arousing the common people's thirst for new forms of literature. Even some classical Chinese classics have been given new romantic interpretations.
In addition to the introduction of literary theories, a number of Western-style jukus specialized in the promotion of Western literature emerged in the late Edo period, and they became an important base for the development of Western studies in Japan. Bunenkaku, Wenyado and other schools have cultivated generations of literary and artistic youth, and have reserved a large number of talents for the rise of the modern literary scene after the Meiji Restoration.
During the Edo period, Western studies spread widely in Japan, and its significance was not limited to the field of literature and art. Through Western literary and artistic works, Japanese intellectuals gained a preliminary understanding of new trends of thought such as bourgeois democracy, individual emancipation, and rationalism. This kind of thinking has actually begun to shake and shock the old framework of Japanese feudal society. More importantly, Western studies opened the door to ideas for the Meiji Restoration, and provided it with a steady stream of ideological nourishment.
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It was under these conditions that the radical transformation of the Meiji Restoration was successfully realized. New literature blossomed in the Meiji era, absorbing the nourishment of Western studies in the late Edo period, and finally brought about a modern transformation of the Japanese literary scene. It can be seen that the spread of Western studies in Japan during the Edo period has far-reaching historical significance for the modernization process of Japan.