【Introduction】
In recent years, with the general improvement of education level and environmental awareness, people have paid more and more attention to animal protection, and more and more people have begun to boycott wildlife products and take action to protect endangered wildlife. In fact, in addition to environmental pollution and climate change caused by human activities, "poaching" is also one of the important reasons for the decline or even extinction of wild animals. Today, we will briefly talk about the history and current situation of poaching on the African continent from a historical perspective.
"Poaching" is illegal hunting, which includes both illegal hunting within one's own country and transnational poaching in other countries – the latter to be seriously defined as hunting or killing protected animals in areas claimed by other countries or reserved for the crown. Poaching on the African continent fits this definition.
▲Seized ivory and its products
Poaching on the African continent has a "long history", and from the 19th century, the large European hunting groups that traveled to Africa were basically guilty of poaching, although some were actually tried and convicted by African kings who hunted their land without permission.
In 1900, European colonial powers successively enacted hunting laws throughout Africa, prohibiting most Africans from hunting. Subsequently, most forms of hunting in Africa, including hunting for food, were also recognized as poaching by colonial authorities. Commercial poaching has been a problem in recent years and poses a certain threat to animal populations, but it has not reached the crisis levels of the late 20th and early 21st centuries.
▲Old photo of former US President Roosevelt shooting a rhinoceros
[Poaching frenzy in the 70s and 80s]
In the fifties and sixties of the last century after the end of World War II, due to the great loss of vitality of European countries and their overseas colonies, the wave of national independence around the world was increasing, and many African countries gained independence from colonial rule during this period. After independence, most African countries retained these rules of prohibition of hunting established by European colonizers, but poaching for food or "bushmeat" continued, and poaching for commercial gain remained commonplace. The inefficiency of the new government's management is certainly one of the reasons for this behavior, but there are also many managers who knowingly violate it and deliberately indulge, after all, many of them also rely on "jungle meat" to obtain valuable protein. In Africa, "bushmeat" is almost the only source of meat for poor households.
▲ "bush meat" stalls can be seen everywhere in Africa
There is no denying that those who hunt for food pose a threat to local animal populations, but the level of threat is not comparable to those hunted for international trade. In the 70s and 80s, poaching in Africa reached unprecedented levels, causing a serious crisis, and the continent's elephant and rhino populations were particularly at risk of extinction, two animals that do not fall under the category of "jungle meat" and are not fed on their meat, but are killed because of the frenetic demand for ivory, rhino horn and their products in the international market.
【Signature of CITES】
In 1963, the International Union for Conservation of Nature publicly called on governments to face up to this problem and embark on international trade in wildlife control, in order to be able to use wildlife resources sustainably. After a decade of hard work, 80 countries signed the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES, commonly known as the Washington Convention) on June 21, 1973, in Washington, D.C., and some African animals, including rhinos, were among the first animals to be protected under the Convention.
▲CITES 18th Conference of the Parties
In 1990, most of the African elephant genus (including 2 species and 6 subspecies) was added to the list of animals that could not be used for commercial purposes. The ban on ivory poaching had a rapid and significant impact, with poaching rapidly declining to more manageable levels. However, it should also be noted that rhino poaching continues to threaten the survival of rhinos, in fact, it is the main reason for the rapid disappearance of white rhinos in the north. On March 19, 2018, the world's last male northern white rhino "Sudan" died in Kenya at the age of 45, leaving only two female northern white rhinos in the world.
▲A male northern white rhino protected by 40 people with guns day and night
Poaching and Terrorism in the 21st Century
In the early 21st century, demand for ivory in Asia began to rise sharply, and poaching in Africa rose again to crisis levels. At the same time, frequent conflict in Congo has created a near-perfect environment for poachers, with elephants and rhinos once again being killed in large numbers, again at dangerous levels.
More worryingly, radical extremist groups like Al-Shabaab have begun poaching and smuggling to obtain funds to finance their terrorist activities. In 2013, the International Union for Conservation of Nature estimated that 20,000 elephants were killed each year. That number already exceeds their birth rate, which means that if poaching is not curbed soon, elephants could go completely extinct in the foreseeable future.
▲African elephant and wildebeest
[Current situation and future of anti-poaching efforts]
In 1997, parties to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) agreed to establish an elephant trade information system to track illegal trafficking in ivory. In 2015, the CITES website reported more than 10,300 cases of illegal ivory smuggling since 1989. As the database expands, it helps guide the international community to combat ivory smuggling more profitably.
Thankfully, there are many other grassroots and non-governmental organizations fighting poaching. As part of his work with Integrated Rural Development and Nature Conservation (IRDNC), John Kasaona oversees a community-based natural resource management program in Namibia that turns poachers into "caretakers."
▲ African woman eating "bush meat"
As he says, many poachers in his area actually poach for survival — either for food or the money their families need to survive. By hiring people who are very knowledgeable about the local environment and educating them about the value of wildlife to the areas in which they live, Cassana's plan has made great strides in combating poaching within Namibia.
However, these advances are minimal in the overall context. Efforts to combat the illegal international trade in the sale of ivory and other African animal products in Western and Eastern countries, as well as efforts to combat illegal poaching in Africa, are therefore the only way to reduce poaching in Africa to sustainable levels.
"Jungle meat" refers to the meat of wild animals such as gorillas, chimpanzees, and mountain boars that live in the jungle. The growing trade in "bushmeat" in some parts of the world has led to increased opportunities for the transfer of new viruses from animals to humans, posing a serious threat to human health.
Predators usually use wire, guns to make traps, these traps are very lethal, in addition to the target prey, often trapping other animals, sometimes even cheetahs and lions. These accidentally trapped animals are either permanently disabled or die in traps without anyone caring about them, resulting in huge waste. Pictured here is a female vendor selling barbecue monkeys at the bushmeat market in Kinshasa, the capital of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
"Jungle meat" is usually enjoyed only by the middle class. Chicken, pork, and beef usually contain additives and preservatives, so "jungle meat" seems to be a good choice for wealthy people.
Not only some large animals, but also some bats have become a plate meal for residents.
The roasted monkey, its desperate eyes for a long time people can not calm down.
Whole roasted animals are sold on the side of the road.
A farmer's yard hangs a monkey skin, the meat of which has long been sold.
Kinshasa, capital of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. A female vendor at the bush meat market chops a barbecued monkey into segments and sells it in sections.
In Epoulu, DRC, local wildlife is being hunted by indigenous people, and bushmeat hunted by indigenous people will be sold to the market for trading. Traditional hunting has evolved into a commercial transaction.
In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, an orphan chimpanzee awaits sale. On average, at least 10 members of the family were reportedly killed for every chimpanzee orphan sold as pets.
In order to protect the life of these jungles, wildlife conservationists have established anti-illegal hunting teams in several nature reserves, reservoirs and farms to protect wild animals from illegal hunters and become people's meals.
Mribez and his brother work with an anti-illegal fishing party at a reservoir in Zambia. During a hunt for illegal hunters, Mribez was shot in one of his arms with a shotgun and had to undergo amputation. After a two-week break in the hospital, Mribez returned to his work. With one arm missing, Mribez could only do some simple work, and Mribez, who could not come out of the shadows, eventually left the team.
The picture shows two illegal hunters caught by the team. According to them, hunting monkeys here brings them a good income.
Farmers examine the remains of dead capitulated antelope. Hunters target not just wildlife, but also the farm's cattle, which lost 40 head of cattle in the first six months.
In the Central African Republic, in 2015, a caretaker in Dzanga-Ndoki National Park held the foot of a western lowland gorilla that had been smoked for sale, a banned commodity confiscated at a market bushmeat stall
"Bushmeat" is an umbrella term for wildlife meat, but it most often refers to the remains of animals killed in African forests and savannas.
People living near Africa's Congo Basin have long hunted bats, monkeys, antelopes, rats, snakes and other wildlife to make ends meet.
Smoked gorilla meat in rural markets costs as little as 25 cents per pound (about 2 yuan per catty).
Smoked wildlife meat often lasts for 6 months or more, providing a valuable source of protein for people in rural areas.
But it stands to reason that gorillas, as close relatives of humans and protected animals, should not be present at bushmeat stalls.
In an interview with villages in the northern Congo Basin, half said they don't eat chimpanzees or gorillas because orangutans have "human-like hands" or "human-like skin" and that the animals look and behave like humans.
Gorillas and chimpanzees are considered special animals in the local culture, they are believed to be related to humans through reincarnation, and locals believe that people may be reincarnated as chimpanzees after death.
There are also animals that are also avoided because of their physical similarities to humans. For example, people avoid eating aardvark because its skin texture looks like human skin. Some also refuse to eat birds whose calls are reminiscent of human sounds, such as parrots, which are thought to be associated with gods.
But social norms are ultimately no match for a hungry belly.
For local residents, eating protected animals is itself illegal, but when faced with cheap bush meat, they have no choice.
People who traditionally lived near forests saw hunting and trapping as their privileges, especially in the poorest areas.
"Because they are so poor and it is difficult to find work, they feel they should have the right to use the forest," said Pascal Dangino, a former poacher. "Protection, for them, is a difficult concept to understand."
Resources:
Steinhart, Edward, Black Poachers, White Hunters: A Social History of Hunting in Kenya
Vira, Varun, Thomas Ewing, and Jackson Miller. "Out of Africa Mapping the Global Trade in Illicit Elephant Ivory," C4ADs, (August 2014).
"What is CITES?" Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species ,(Accessed: December 29, 2015).
(Source: Quguan History, Formula Index Source Code, National Geographic Image Classic WeChat public account.) Thanks to the original author, just for knowledge sharing. ）