With the increasing power of Macedonia, especially with the accession of Philip II, a new era began in Greek military history. Philip II not only had outstanding talents in military organization, strategy and tactics, but was also the first king to win hegemony in Greece, although he did not establish a centralized state in all of Greece, but ensured through mutual agreements that he had full access to the military resources of the Greek countries. Under Philip II and his son and successor Alexander, the scale of the war reached an all-time high: armies grew larger and more detailed, and Greek and Macedonian soldiers fought throughout the eastern Mediterranean, when almost everyone was fighting, and ordinary citizens were warriors.
Philip II was King of the Balkan state of Macedonia from 359 BC to 336 BC, and during his reign he carried out a comprehensive reform of Macedonian military affairs, the most important of which was the mixing of multiple arms into a complete combat unit, and he also re-equipped the infantry phalanx with weapons: the warriors were armed with Salisha spears, which were 4.5-5.4 meters long and weighed 6 kilograms, and were equipped with metal spearheads at the front and rear ends, most of which were made of hard mountain wood. Since the Salisha spear had to be held with both hands, infantrymen would hang small round shields around their necks for self-defense. When using this spear in combat, the degree of cooperation between the warriors and their obedience to military discipline are extremely demanding: everyone must complete their mission, and only in this way can the entire formation exert its maximum power. Moreover, these weapons and equipment were equipped by order of the king, and even soldiers from the poor classes could join such a phalanx.
The Macedonian infantry phalanx with such a weapon configuration can effectively defeat the enemy army in a head-to-head confrontation with its terrifying, out-of-average length spears when fighting the traditional heavy infantry phalanx; However, it is less mobile, and the two wings of the phalanx are its weaknesses, which is very vulnerable to attack. Therefore, the Macedonian phalanx needed to rely on the protection of light infantry or cavalry in battle. These arms of the soldiers were recruited from peasants in Macedonia who were obliged to perform military service, and they were called companion infantry, that is, walking partners. The better infantry were selected to form the Shield Guard, an elite force of the best warriors, generally divided into three teams: the king himself, if he wanted to participate in infantry combat, would join Agma, the first and most noble of birth. In addition, some soldiers of the friendly infantry would be selected to form the king's escort and another elite force.
During the reign of Philip II, the intensity of large-scale battles was almost uninterrupted, which also made almost all of his soldiers professional soldiers: they received the corresponding military training and exercises, and according to the requirements of King Philip II, these soldiers were greatly improved in physical fitness so that they could carry weapons and dry rations during long marches, and at the same time, in order to speed up the march, the number of carts in the ranks was strictly controlled. In fact, Philip II's army was indeed the most mobile at its time, marching much faster than the armies of other contemporaries.
Unlike other Greek states (with the possible exception of Thessaly), Macedonia also had a large cavalry corps. In this way, Philip II was able to use the Macedonian nobles who had tried to free themselves from the king's control, for example by granting them military titles or accepting them as Janissaries. These Janissaries were also known as the Companion Cavalry to emphasize their close relationship with the king. The natural conditions in Macedonia and the social status enjoyed by the members of the cavalry provided a good basis for the development of the cavalry corps, and Philip II established it as an independent fighting force, in addition to guarding the two wings of the infantry phalanx and tracking down defeated enemies, they also played a pivotal role in King Philip's strategic planning. For example, in the Battle of Caronia in 338 BC, Alexander, the son of Philip II, who was the commander-in-chief of the left wing of the allied cavalry, formed the cavalry into a wedge battle team to defeat the Greek coalition formed by Athens and Thebae, won this difficult battle, and finally helped his father gain the control of the Greek region, and the Greek city-states lost their complete political initiative. The Macedonian cavalry was defensive with helmets, heart guards, waist guards and boots, and sometimes leather shin armor, but did not carry shields. Their most important attack weapon was the Salisha spear, although it was shorter than that of infantry. At the same time, the cavalry also needs to undergo a series of exercises, learn to step on the war horse without stepping on stirrups, form a specific formation to move forward, pursue the enemy and wield the spear to kill him. It can be seen that Philip II should have trained his cavalry with the same extraordinary intensity as the infantry.
In addition, in order to make better use of new military technologies, Philip II set up a special engineering department in the army, which had a complete mechanical warehouse. From the 4th century BC, ballistae were very effective offensive weapons on the battlefield and during sieges of cities, both for defense and in attacks. The emergence of different siege weapons increases the likelihood of capturing fortified cities.
Philip II's ability to prevail in the Greek battlefield was fundamentally based on his outstanding political and courageous leadership. He succeeded in establishing his desired dominance in Macedonia, co-opting the nobility for his use, and using various means to neutralize external enemies or bring them under his rule. In this way, he had the ability to fully mobilize all the natural, economic and human resources in Macedonia, which were already more abundant than the rest of the Greek city-states: Macedonia had gold mines under its soil, fertile plains were best suited for horses, and its population far exceeded that of the rest of the Greek state. In addition to military reforms, these favorable conditions were one of the fundamental reasons for the invincibility of Philip II and his successor Alexander.
Alexander the Great has so far been the embodiment of young fame, invincibility and majesty. He earned himself such a reputation for his unprecedented and invincible large-scale military campaign, known as the Alexander Crusade (334–323 BC). Although it was a complete war of aggression, it was touted as a revenge war to liberate the Greek city-states of Asia Minor, directed at its longtime archenemy, Persia. Since Macedonia began to rule Greece, Alexander naturally became the spokesman for the interests of Greece after Philip II. In this grand crusade, Alexander led his army to sweep through thousands of armies in just a few years, occupying a large area from his native Macedonia to present-day Pakistan, defeating the huge Persian Empire, conquering peoples of different cultures and regions, and remained undefeated in large-scale battles, known as the son of the sun god Amun. But the foundation laid by his biological father for Alexander certainly helped him win the conquest to Central Asia than his hypothetical father—although the aura of divine ordination sometimes confers psychological advantages. But in any case, Philip II left his most well-trained army at the time to his son Alexander.
In 334 BC, Alexander led his army over Hiripa – a total of 12,000 Macedonian infantry, 7,000 Greek infantry, and 5,000 mercenaries. There were also armies from the rest of the Balkans' independent neighbors, including 7,000 infantry and 1,000 archers, and a vanguard of about 10,000 who had been preparing reconnaissance in western Asia Minor since 336 BC. It can be seen that the total number of infantry in the army led by Alexander the Great at that time exceeded 40,000, and the number of cavalry also exceeded 5,000. According to the historian Theodorus, 1,800 of the cavalry were from Macedonia, 1,800 from Thessaly, 600 from the Greek army, and about 900 from the surrounding Balkan countries, mainly responsible for reconnaissance.
We have only a cursory idea of the strategic composition of this army. At the beginning of the crusade, the Macedonian cavalry was divided into 8 squadrons of cavalry, each of about 200 men, which were supposed to be recruited from different parts of Macedonia, the most important of which was the Guards Cavalry Squadron, which the king himself would have joined. Until Philotas 's execution in 330 BC, he led the cavalry, but there was no fixed commander after him. The infantry was divided into 6 regiments of 1,500 men each, and the Macedonian infantry regiments were supposedly recruited by region. In addition, there are 3,000 shield-wielding guards. Non-Macedonian armies are organized according to ethnicity and have specific weapons and equipment, but the commander of each team must be Macedonian. It can be seen that the team commanded by King Alexander is very large and uneven, and it is very difficult to lead, but despite this, this commander can successfully use it according to the strengths of each team.
This crusade was an incomparably grand war for the Greek region, but in view of the size of the Persian Empire, although the team was huge, the number of battles was only equal to that of the opponent, and everyone in the team had their own expectations and fantasies about this war, and no one could predict what the final outcome of the crusade would be and what everyone would get. Ordinary warriors want to earn loot and reward, gain fame in adventures, and may be called up into this almost invincible team, with pride and pride, and if they fight bravely and win battles, they will be promoted, commended, and after returning home in triumph, as a reward for their service to their country, these warriors can enjoy a stable income in Macedonia or elsewhere. The higher the position, the more booty they receive, and for them, it is especially important for them to obtain honorary and honorary titles. The most important thing for the young king was that he could call on this experienced legion that had fought with King Philip II for many years. Alexander himself had rigorous military training and was a bold strategist, and it was precisely because of his fearlessness – though some historians sometimes stress that it was foolishness – that he repeatedly encouraged his subjects to support his actions. However, in terms of warfare, the organization of the army and the ability to communicate smoothly between superiors and subordinates were another factor in his invincibility - thanks to the experienced and talented veteran army he inherited from Philip II.
Alexander's talents as commander of the army were fully demonstrated at the Battle of Gaugamela in the Two Rivers Valley in 331 BC, a crucial battle in which he defeated his archrival, the Persian king Darius III, for the second time after the Battle of Issus in 333 BC. At that time, the Persian army had an absolute superiority in numbers, and also used the fearsome scythe chariot and jaw-dropping war elephants, and in order to prevent the opponent from launching a rapid cavalry attack, the Persians also set up stakes and lasso on the flat battlefield in advance. In response to these means, Alexander drew up a very detailed battle plan. He placed 10,000 fellow infantry, or heavily equipped infantry, in the center of the ranks, and on its left flank were the cavalry of the Greek coalition. This arrangement was initially not intended to slaughter opponents, but to conduct defensive warfare and, if possible, attack the right flank of the Persian army. To the right of the phalanx were shield-wielding guards, followed by the Macedonian cavalry, whose task was to attack the main force in the center of the Persian contingent under Alexander's command. In order to avoid the left and right flanks being outflanked by the opponents, a specific team composed of a mixture of heavily equipped infantry and cavalry was arranged at the end of the two battle formations, the purpose of which was to intercept the attacks of the Persian cavalry on the two wings.
Alexander's most innovative battle plan for this battle was to keep a reserve army of Greeks and barbarians, who were at the rear of the battle formation, turning around to prevent enemy armies from attacking their own troops from behind. At the front of Alexander's ranks were lightly armed infantry—archers, catapults and javelinmen—whose most important task was to prevent the sickle chariot from stirring up the battle while disturbing the formation of the Persian army. At the beginning of the battle, Alexander led his Guards cavalry to the right flank, quickly attracting most of the strength of the left flank of the Persian army to the outside, and this detached Persian army fell into a scuffle with the allied legions that had been arranged, and a hole appeared in the center of the Persian army. At this time, Alexander immediately led his army around the artificial obstacles, decisively turned around and attacked the vacancy of the Persian army, and his target was Darius III and his main army. Along the way, some companion infantry rushing up from the central camp of the Macedonian army covered Alexander's cavalry. Alexander's rapid advance threw the opponent's elite into chaos, and although the cavalry and infantry of the two wings of the Persian legion had not yet been defeated, and even entered the Macedonian camp on several occasions, Darius III saw that the opportunity was not good and immediately fled on his own. The commander's flight was a decisive turn: the Persians yielded and Alexander won a great victory, although he did not achieve his immediate goal, which was to capture the Persian king, who had long since disappeared into the vast territory of Mesopotamia. After that, Alexander became the king of Asia.
Alexander was able to win this battle by virtue of a correct understanding of his opponent, a clear and probably already informed subordinate battle plan and the right moment to launch a brave attack, a meticulous control of details, and the appropriate measures against the scythe chariot, which would be crushed into powder if it did not escape unscathed. The greatest difficulty on the battlefield was to be in control and give orders—especially for someone like Alexander, who had a decisive influence on the course of the war. Maybe there were herald cavalry in the army at that time, or people could transmit messages through drums or some other signal. However, in times of disturbance and anxiety, it is likely that orders cannot be conveyed to the relevant personnel. Therefore, the most important thing for Alexander was the warriors and commanders who cooperated tacitly and could act independently in emergency situations, and who could obey the unambiguous instructions of the king himself, depending on the situation of the battle. Alexander himself, for his part, demonstrated his outstanding personal ability to deal with all the remaining complex issues, including the preparation and subsequent execution of such military adventures.
It was precisely in view of the triumphant experience in many major battles, including this campaign, that Alexander's army generally accepted the plans and arrangements he made, and despite the frequent fighting, their fighting spirit remained high. These warriors trusted their king, felt connected to him, and spontaneously obeyed the king's orders. To the average Macedonian soldier, the king was not unattainable; Their kings were considerate of the toil of their people, and sometimes deliberately lowered their posture in an attempt to approach their subjects and emphasize the collective value of their mission. Despite this, several mutinies broke out, partly because the crusade lasted too long: most of the soldiers were eager to return home soon, but Alexander tried to continue the expedition, in which case the king's pursuit had lost its appeal to them. In 326 BC, the eighth year of the Crusade, while marching to the Indus River, Alexander was forced to stop the crusade and withdraw his troops back.
In 324 BC, some soldiers mutinied in Opis in Mesopotamia, a rebellion that was caused by Alexander's release of many veterans and generous distribution of supplies to them—but the deeper reason was that Alexander was constantly promoting the integration of Persians into his army and adopting a policy of kindness to Persians. These measures are psychologically unacceptable to Macedonians who feel culturally superior. The Indus Mutiny was finally resolved peacefully. Fundamentally, it was resolved because of Alexander's compromise, but in dealing with the Opis mutiny, he took a tough approach, he sent his trusted escort to capture the troublemakers and put them all to death, and then continued his original plan after making accusatory remarks to the rest of the soldiers and carrying out a huge and passionate pacification campaign. In addition to maintaining military discipline, he also held a grand commendation event and awarded a large number of weapons to his subordinates; While publicly commending or awarding laurels, he also imposed a series of punishments, including banishment, demotion, corporal punishment, and even death.
For Alexander, it was necessary to integrate non-Macedonian and non-Greek peoples into his ranks. In order to rule the vast territory he occupied, he needed to deploy large numbers of troops in these new provinces, and on the other hand, King Alexander needed new warriors to replace those who were killed, wounded, or sick. In addition, there were some fighters who were expelled from the army for some reason, and their positions also needed to be replaced. But Macedonians or mercenaries could not fill all the vacancies, so it was necessary to recruit local people into the ranks. This was especially necessary from 330 BC, as the way of fighting changed as the war gradually shifted to the eastern provinces of the Persian Empire.
Originally, the two sides fought each other with major battles or protracted sieges. But with the collapse of the Persian dynasty, with the exception of the Battle of Hydaspes, which took place in 326 BC against the Indian king Poras and against the large herds of war elephants, the battles in the provinces of Bactria and Sogdiana (in present-day Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Afghanistan) were small battles, including the capture of fortifications, difficult mountain marches, rapid raids, and the transfer of troops. In this case, a high degree of flexibility and light equipment are necessary, so it is necessary to accept Iranian cavalry and its unique combat equipment into the original cavalry team, so as to expand the combat power and better adapt to the new combat situation in strategy and tactics. The original cavalry squadron was replaced by 8 new cavalry regiments and expanded in number (each new cavalry regiment was about 300 men), and in addition to the Macedonian cavalry, cavalry from eastern countries was added to the ranks.
Of course, Alexander's expeditionary force was not the only soldier who could fight well, and we know that Alexander's army also included heavy brigades—such a composition was very rare in the armies of Greek city-states, and the task of the heavy brigade was to provide services to the warriors—accompanied by doctors, grooms, priests, and merchants, clerical and siege teams were also required, in addition to military prostitutes and fortune tellers. Although, like his father Philip II , Alexander tried to keep his entourage as small as possible , for example by controlling the number of servants in each team , he also had to ensure the necessary logistical supplies. We must consider that this is an expedition that will require a long journey deep into the Middle East, and how to keep this team supplied with food, weapons, clothing, timber and the rest of the supplies is undoubtedly a huge challenge.
Of course, it was impossible to carry all the necessary supplies with the army on the expedition. The supplies needed by the army mainly came from the countries and regions they passed, which was often an effective source of supply, but once they came to barren or grassy arid areas, such as the Gedrosian Desert (located on the border of present-day southern Iran and southwestern Pakistan), they had to change the corresponding supply strategy and prepare in advance: the vanguard must first build a granary, set up a contact point with the food escort team in advance, or sign corresponding agreements with the local population. Nevertheless, the desert expedition brought great disaster to Macedonia: Alexander underestimated the barrenness of the Gedrosian region and did not carry enough supplies, resulting in the death of thousands of soldiers. Although Alexander was able to overcome the remaining difficulties of the expedition, nature would not yield to this "heroic king".