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Shangshu was originally a petty official in charge of clerical work, which was already in place during the Warring States period. Until the early years of the Western Han Dynasty, the main task of Shangshu was still to transmit documents, and there was no political power.
After Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, Shangshu's position gradually changed. By the late Western Han Dynasty, Shangshu had begun to act as a staff and adviser on certain state affairs, and also began to have the power to impeach and elect officials according to the emperor's will.
1. The power of the Eastern Han Dynasty Shangshu
In the Eastern Han Dynasty, Shangshu's power was further expanded. In order to concentrate power in his own hands to the greatest extent, Emperor Guangwu deliberately weakened the power of the three dukes and "bowed to the good officials".
However, the exercise of this highly centralized power had to go through specific institutions, so it was only natural that the Shangshu institutions under his control had increased their tasks and expanded their powers. Most of the heirs of the middle and late Eastern Han Dynasty were young children, unable to handle political affairs, and had to be represented by their mothers.
The regent's mother lives in the harem on weekdays, and rarely sees the ministers of foreign courts. The emperor or empress dowager, who lived in the deep palace and had little ruling experience, exercised imperial power by expanding the power of the Shangshu institution and handled government affairs, and the power of the Shangshu was further expanded.
During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the most important of the expanded powers of Shangshu was the parliamentary power and the right to supervise hundreds of officials.
Emperor Guangwu started from guarding against hundreds of officials, supervised hundreds of officials with close ministers, and developed the existing impeachment power of Shangshu.
In the imperial history, Cheng and Si Lixiao were in charge of supervising and prosecuting unjudicial officials, but Shang Shuling and these two officials "sat alone" at the court meeting, which shows that Shang Shu's original impeachment power has been institutionalized so far.
Since the founding of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the system of Shangshu collection and discussion and admonition has gradually been formed. After Emperor Guangwu monopolized power, it was difficult for the three dukes to play a role as auxiliary ministers, and at the same time, there were few ministers around him. As a result, in the process of handling specific affairs, Shangshu began to participate in the deliberation of military affairs. Later, according to the needs of the rule, the system of Shangshu assembly and admonition was gradually formed.
The power of parliament and the power to supervise the execution of hundreds of officials are the basic powers of prime ministers such as the Three Princes.
During the Eastern Han Dynasty, Shangshu gradually possessed these powers in the process of expanding its power, so the Shangshu of the Eastern Han Dynasty exercised the power of prime minister to a large extent together with the Three Dukes, and the Sangong Mansion and Shangshutai became the two most important institutions of the Central Dynasty.
The development of the power of Shangshu in the Eastern Han Dynasty was, to a large extent, to make up for the shortcomings of the Three Princes in order to ensure the efficiency and quality of governance. However, due to the lack of any form of supervision over the expanding power of Shangshu, in the late Eastern Han Dynasty, when the political style became increasingly corrupt, Shangshu not only found it difficult to play its due positive role, but even produced negative effects to a certain extent.
2. The eunuch dictatorship and the book
Since the monarch's power was often exercised through the Shangshu, the relatives and eunuchs also served them by controlling the Shangshu.
Shangshu's official position, qualifications, and prestige are relatively low, and it is easier and more convenient for relatives and eunuchs to control Shangshu than to control foreign ministers whose status, qualifications, and prestige are much higher.
During the reign of Emperor Huan, the county guards Liu Lu and Cheng Jin violated the pardon order to kill the lawless Xiaohuangmen Zhao Lu, etc., which angered the eunuchs, and Shangshu adhered to the will of the eunuchs to play the gourds and Jin "sin should abandon the city".
At that time, the three princes jointly wrote a letter to block the punishment of the crime of riveting and Jin, and Shangshu "impeached him"-for-tat. Taiwei Yang Bing impeached Hou Lan, who was a corrupt servant of the law, and Shang Shu rebuked Yang Bing on the grounds that the outer dynasty was not allowed to interfere with the inner court. It can be seen that under certain conditions, as long as the eunuch controls Shangshu, the autocratic power is very convenient.
In short, constrained by the dictatorship of foreign relatives, eunuchs, and other corrupt factors, by the time of Emperor Ling, the role of Shangshu in ensuring the efficiency and quality of his rule had diminished even more.
During the Xiping period (172-177), the rule of officials had been fully corrupted, and the vast majority of the thirteen prefectures of the Assassin History, which was a supervisor of the Thirteen Prefectures, had become a force cultivated by various corrupt magnates, and completely lost the function of supervising the prefectures and counties, while the three princes of the central government responsible for supervising the Assassin History and the prefectures and counties maintained a helpless or colluded silence on this corruption, and Shangshu, who was responsible for the duties of the three princes, was also silent.
This grim reality has put the Ling Emperor's reign in jeopardy. In order for his reign to continue, Emperor Ling had to do his best to change the rotten reality.
3. The checks and balances of Shangshu in the service
Emperor Ling wanted to ensure the effective exercise of Shangshu's authority by restricting and supervising Shangshu, so he reformed the official system and set up Shizhong Temple.
During the Western Han Dynasty, the officials who entered the palace and served the emperor were called servants. Before Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, Shizhong basically did not participate in political affairs, mainly serving the emperor in life. In order to make a great difference, Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty selected a group of talented and resourceful scholars to serve as servants, and in fact, he used close ministers such as servants as staff officers and advisers for major decisions.
From then on, close ministers began to play an important role in politics. In the Eastern Han Dynasty, the main duties of the servant were fixed in the system: according to the system and etiquette to deal with the relevant problems that arise when serving the emperor in daily life; Served as political and academic advisor to the emperor. In order to be able to perform the above duties, it is necessary to select Confucian scholars with profound knowledge and high moral character to serve as servants.
In the middle and late Eastern Han Dynasty, the status of the servant showed a downward trend. The development of Shangshu's power and the expansion of the eunuchs' power encroached on the power of the servants from different angles. Due to the decline in the power and role of the waiters, the standards for the candidates in the waiters have also been lowered. When Emperor Shun, Li Gu, who would be the minister, once lamented that he was young and uneducated, and "there was no Confucian master to consult".
Emperor Ling's choice of Shizhong as the power to restrain and supervise Shangshu should be related to the identity of Shizhong's close ministers and his own knowledge and cultivation. As a close minister serving the left and right, the servant can supervise the Shangshu in a timely manner according to the emperor's will.
If, according to the inherent system, the knowledgeable people are selected as the servants, generally speaking, because of their high cultural attainment and strong moral binding force, in the dark and corrupt situation of the government faction, it should be the most appropriate choice to serve as the inspector Shangshu.
On the occasion of Xiping (172-177) and Guanghe (178-183), Emperor Ling carefully selected two types of people to serve as servants. One category is the bureaucrats who are knowledgeable and honest.
For example, Lu Zhi, a native of Zhuo County, Zhuo County, was resolute by nature, proficient in Confucianism, and loyal to the imperial court. In the fourth year of Xiping (175), Lu Zhi, Cai Yong and others revised the Confucian classics in Dongguan and supplemented the "Han Dynasty". Soon, Emperor Ling transferred Lu Zhi out of Dongguan on the grounds that the school scriptures and the compilation of history were not "urgent matters" and served as a servant.
Since the school scriptures and the compilation of history are not "urgent matters", then the position of the transferred servant should be an "urgent matter". At about the same time as transferring Lu Zhi, Zhang Xun, who was in Dongguan to study the Six Classics, and Yang Biao, who wrote books and lectures, were transferred from their original posts and also served as a servant.
Yang Biao and Zhang Xun, like Lu Zhi, are not only knowledgeable, but also honest and upright. The other type of people who serve as servants are Le Song and Jia Hu, who are good at literature and blessings favored by the Spirit Emperor. At this moment, the Spirit Emperor deliberately and urgently chose to serve in the middle of the matter, which meant that the Spirit Emperor had new needs.
4. The significance of Shizhong Temple
In the sixth year of Xiping (177), Emperor Ling set up the Shizhong Temple. Since then, in addition to the inherent role of serving as an advisor to the emperor, the main responsibilities of the servant have also been added to the "provincial scholar", that is, the servant examines the affairs of the scholar. Emperor Ling hoped to avoid or reduce errors in edicts and measures by waiting for the review of Shangshu to ensure the quality of his rule.
Before the Han Dynasty, the Jiuqing official mansion was called the temple, and it still had the name of "Nine Temples" until the Western Jin Dynasty. In the past, Shizhong was institutionally and nominally one of the Shaofu Temple, one of the official offices of the Nine Qings.
Emperor Ling's establishment of the Shizhong Temple meant that the Shizhong would be separated from the Shaofu and become an institution parallel to the Jiuqing Bureau, so as to better perform the duty of inspecting the Shangshu Performance. Before the establishment of the Shizhong Temple, there has been no fixed establishment in the Shizhong Temple, and after the establishment of the Shizhong Temple, the establishment of the Shizhong Temple was fixed for the first time in history.
This is conducive to the development of the position of the servant from the previous life service, academic advisory, and political general participation in deliberations and disputes to a fixed and specific "provincial scholarly affairs".
The dereliction of duty and even corruption of Shangshu officials was an inevitable phenomenon under the decadent political style at that time, and at the same time, it was directly related to the eunuchs' control over Shangshu. Emperor Ling was unable to fundamentally change the corrupt political style, and he had to rely on and favor the eunuchs, so the implementation of the new system of "provincial scholars" in the service would be full of resistance and little effect.
In the fifth year of Guanghe (182), the edict ordered the three princes to act according to public opinion to kill the people, the county guard and other officials.
Taiwei Xu Yu and Situ Zhang Ji adhered to the will of the eunuchs and accepted bribes, not only did not move those who really breached the law, but instead deceived and falsely accused 26 officials who were honest and accomplished in remote counties as corrupt. For such a serious incident of violating the law and order of the Three Princes' Mansion, Shangshu officials did not impeach it impartially.
Shangshu's dereliction of duty just shows that the servant did not play its due supervisory role. The selection of officials was supposed to be coordinated by the "election" of the three dukes and the "inspectors" of the Shangshu. On the occasion of Guanghe (179-183) and Zhongping (184-189), Emperor Ling once put aside the three dukes and Shangshu and worked tirelessly to directly elect officials.
Emperor Ling would rather work hard himself, but also take over the elective power given by the system to the Three Princes and Shangshu, which further shows that Emperor Ling is already very uneasy about the seriously corrupt Three Princes and Shangshu.
From here, it is completely conceivable how much the actual effect of the new system of "Provincial Shangshushi" in Shizhong Temple is. Despite this, the establishment of Shizhong Temple has finally outlined the outline of the subordinate province of the future generations who are in charge of "discussing politics" and "Pingshang Shu". In particular, the stipulation of the extremely important position of "the provincial secretary of the province" has pointed out the direction for the establishment, existence, and development of the subordinate provinces.
5. Emperor Ling's "Three Mutual Laws"
During the Western Han Dynasty, due to the inconvenient transportation in the whole country and few economic ties in various places, the independence of local political power was relatively strong, and the power in politics, economy, and justice was relatively large.
In this situation, the central dynasty of the Western Han Dynasty took various measures to strengthen its control over the localities, and the avoidance of local officials from their places of origin was one of the control measures.
At least after Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, all local officials such as county guards and state assassins appointed by the central government were generally not allowed to serve in their hometowns in order to prevent them from committing fraud for personal gain.
After the middle of the Eastern Han Dynasty, political affairs declined, and the style of partisanship prevailed in the officialdom, in order to prevent the formation of parties for personal gain, the imperial court gradually expanded the scope of recusal, "the family of marriage and the people of the two states are not allowed to supervise each other", and the scope of the recusal of local governors was expanded from the state and county of origin to the second state or county directly related to it.
The expanded recusal system includes two situations:
One is that if family A and family B intermarry, and the two families live in different states or counties, then the man of family A should avoid the state and county where family B is located, and he must not be the assassin or guardian of the state and county where family B is located; In turn, the B family also avoided it.
The other is that in any two states of the thirteen states in the country, if a person from State A has already served as the governor or county guard of State B, during his tenure, the person of State B must recuse himself from State A, that is, the person of State A and the county guard shall no longer be appointed by a person from State B; Conversely, the people of State A also shunned State B.
During the period of Emperor Ling, the style of friends in the officialdom became more and more popular, and the ministers, assassins, and county guards generally did not care about the government affairs of the imperial court, but were only keen to form parties for personal gain, and seek power and profit.
A ballad that circulated at the time said:
"Showing talent, not knowing books; Cha Xiaolian, his father does not live. ”
The spicy satire of the ballad shows the extent to which the elective system has been corrupted. The fact that the elective system is so corrupt is the inevitable result of the flourishing of officialdom and partisanship.
In order to deal with the increasingly fierce trend of forming parties for personal gain, Emperor Ling, who was at the end of his rope, established the "Three Mutual Laws" to further expand the scope of official avoidance.
There is no further information on the specific content of the "Three Mutual Laws". As the name suggests, the "Three Mutual Laws" should involve three aspects that have a certain relationship with each other, so as to "taboo transfer of secrets" compared with the previous "no supervision of each other" avoidance system.
The establishment of the "three-mutual law" has made more and more taboos on the selection and appointment of officials, and it is bound to block, to a certain extent, the channels for local officials at all levels to turn around and form parties for personal gain.
However, while the "three-mutual law" has caused difficulties and inconvenience to officials seeking personal gain, it has also brought about negative effects that cannot be underestimated.
There are too many taboos, which make it difficult for the normal election of officials. In Xiping (172-178), because of the taboo of the "Three Mutual Laws", it was impossible to select a suitable candidate for the history of the assassins of Youzhou and Hebei for a long time.
The long-term absence of candidates in the two states is only an example of the negative effect of the "Three Mutual Laws" on the official selection system, and the Taishou and Assassin Histories in other states and counties will definitely have varying degrees of vacancies due to the complex and complicated avoidance taboos of the "Three Mutual Laws". This vacancy will undoubtedly cause new chaos to the reign of the Spirit Emperor.
6. How to elect officials?
In the middle and late Eastern Han Dynasty, the various shortcomings of the official selection, assessment, supervision and other systems gradually developed to the point where it was difficult to return during the Lingdi period. In order to change the style of friends who reached the peak of officialdom, Emperor Ling established the "Three Mutual Laws".
Although the "Three Mutual Laws" to a certain extent blocked the way for friends to seek personal gain in the elective system, it was unable to fundamentally resist the increasingly blazing trend of friends, and at the same time caused new chaos to Emperor Ling's rule. Despite this, Emperor Ling could not give up the "Three Mutual Laws".
Under the "three-reciprocal law" system, if the number of scholars in a given state is more and more widely distributed in other states, or if they have many and wide intermarriages with scholars in other states, the more difficult it is to choose the governor of that state. The fact that he served in other states and intermarried with scholars in other states was undoubtedly a manifestation of the social and political power of scholars in this state.
The social and political forces are strong, and various relationships are intertwined, which is precisely the main object of the dynasty's defense. Therefore, it is impossible for Emperor Ling to give up the "Three Mutual Laws" because of the long-term vacancy of the official position.
During the reign of Xiping (172-177), Cai Yong, a member of the council, proposed to abolish the "Three Mutual Laws", but did not cause any reaction, and this is the reason.
The "Three Mutual Laws" cannot be abandoned, but the implementation of them will continue to create new chaos in the ruling order, which undoubtedly shows that the official selection system of the dynasty has fallen into a dilemma.
If new measures are not taken, the selection of officials in the dynasty will be further and further mired in a dilemma and eventually become completely inoperable.
At a time when the system of selecting and appointing officials is already difficult to function, new problems have arisen that have exacerbated this crisis.
From the early years of Jianning (168-171) to the first year of Xiping (172), the dynasty revitalized the party prison and dealt several heavy blows to the "party members" in succession, countless bureaucrats and doctors from Confucianism were imprisoned, hundreds of students were arrested, and the bureaucratic ranks and bureaucratic reserve army were greatly weakened.
This situation objectively also required Emperor Ling to take measures to provide the bureaucracy with talents who met the needs of his rule.
In the fifth year of Xiping (176), the expansion of the "party system" triggered by the letter of Yongchang Taishou Cao Luan exempted the protégés of the "party people" and their relatives such as the five clans from official imprisonment.
This blow to the forces of the "party people" caused the contradiction of the weakening of the bureaucracy to suddenly sharpen, and this forced Emperor Ling to take immediate remedial measures. In December of that year, half a year after the expansion of the "party system", Emperor Ling hurriedly stuffed more than 100 Tai students over the age of 60 into the bureaucracy, and entrusted them with official positions such as Langzhong, the prince Sheren, and the county literary official; In April of the following year, dozens of market merchants who had the name of "filial piety" because of their guarding of the Xuanling Tomb were appointed as Langzhong and Prince Sheren.
"Xuanling filial sons" are villains in the market, their cultural literacy is poor, and their political skills are extremely limited. Students over the age of 60 generally do not have all the abundant and vigorous political energy of young adults, and their talents are too mediocre.
Therefore, within a few months, pushing a group of "Xuanling filial sons" and a group of elderly students into the bureaucracy can certainly solve the urgent need for the bureaucratic contingent to be sharply reduced due to the "party indium", but due to the limitations of the personal conditions of the "Xuanling filial sons" and the elderly students, they are simply unable to perform their respective positions, and it is impossible to meet the needs of Emperor Ling for all kinds of ruling talents.
The above-mentioned special measures of the Ling Emperor have a very limited effect, although they are only emergency measures, but they are all introduced after the Ling Emperor's careful consideration, so we can get a glimpse of the guiding ideology of the Ling Emperor during this period to make the official election system work normally and prevent officialdom and friends.
The "Xuanling filial son" used by Emperor Ling has a common characteristic with the elderly students, that is, they have a low social status and lack an intertwined network of relationships. During the Eastern Han Dynasty, although the "municipal registration system" that forbade merchants from entering the government, heavy taxation, and heavy labor had disappeared, and the social status of merchants had generally improved, there were still high and low social status of individual merchants in the merchant class.
Volunteering to serve as the tomb keeper of the imperial tomb is disdained by wealthy businessmen with status and status. Only ordinary small businessmen in the market, whose social status is low, and have no other way to change their status, take the "Imperial Mausoleum" as an opportunity to change their status.
However, the fact that Tai students still do not have the opportunity to enter the ranks at the age of 60 is of course related to their mediocre talents on the one hand, and on the other hand, it is related to their lack of connections in the officialdom. Because under the political wind at that time, as long as there is a relationship, mediocre and incompetent people can not only enter the ranks smoothly, but also rise to the top. Allowing these people with low social status and no intertwined network to enter the official career is undoubtedly extremely beneficial to preventing officialdom and friends.
Under the guiding ideology of guarding against friends, Emperor Ling finally took more important measures at the beginning of Guanghe (178-183) in order to select as many talents as possible suitable for his ruling needs.
7. Founded Hongdu Gate School
In Xiping (172-177), Emperor Ling ingeniously summoned dozens of people who were good at dictionaries, calligraphy and painting, and asked them to gather in the Hongdu Gate. Sometimes, this group of people was with Emperor Ling, either discussing the words of the Fu or telling the Emperor Lingdi folk anecdotes and legends.
This group of people was deeply favored by the Spirit Emperor, and many of them were successively entrusted with important official positions by the Spirit Emperor.
These actions of Emperor Ling had no precedent in the history of the Han Dynasty, so they quickly attracted criticism.
In July of the sixth year of Xiping (177), Cai Yong, a famous man who was full of wealth, pointed out in a book:
According to the system of the Han Dynasty, filial piety, virtuousness, and literature are the normal ways to select officials, and calligraphy, painting, and rhetoric are purely low-level talents, just like games, and cannot be used as the foundation of education and scholars.
Cai Yong's views actually represent the aspirations of all "gentlemen". Cai Yong's book this time involves several suggestions on major military affairs. For other suggestions, Emperor Ling has adopted them to varying degrees, but for the matter of "favoring those who are good at calligraphy and painting", Emperor Ling not only did not accept Cai Yong's suggestion, but accelerated the pace of acting according to his own wishes.
A few months later, he made an even more vigorous move.
In February of the first year of Guanghe (178), in Hongdu Gate, Emperor Ling founded a new type of school specializing in cifu, calligraphy and painting, and ruler - Hongdu Gate School.
Emperor Ling's edict ordered the prefectures and counties and the three princes to use the Hongdumen students to summon them. Those who study well can be appointed to important official positions such as assassin history, county guard, scholar, and servant.
As soon as Emperor Ling's shocking measure was introduced, the bureaucrats and orthodox literati from the Shi family immediately attacked him in droves, and did not hesitate to attack him in a big way.
Yang Ci, a member of the Hongnong family and a doctor of Guanglu, condemned and said:
"Under the Hongdu Gate, the recruitment group is small, and the pretentiousness is said, and the insect seal is favored by the time."
Shangshu Ling Yangqiu, who was born in a "family background", said in a book: All the beings in Hongdu are "all out of contempt and fighting villains", and asked Emperor Ling to "dismiss the choice of Hongdu to eliminate the slander of the world". Cai Yong wrote to Emperor Ling again, requesting that Hongdumen be "endured and rejected".
Summarizing the many objections, it is nothing more than contempt for the origin of the Hongdu Gate scholars, despising the calligraphy and painting of Cifu, thinking that it is "the little one of talent", and criticizing it for not taking scholars by scripture as "violating the code of the Ming King".
The above-mentioned objections were representative at the time.
In the Eastern Han Dynasty, with the development of the power of the Shi family and its influence on the election system, by the time of Emperor Ling, such a concept had been formed: only those who were born in a big family and practiced in the Ming Dynasty became officials, which was justified.
The students of Hongdu Gate School are all from humble backgrounds and come from the lower strata of society. At the same time, since Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty used Confucianism to learn from scholars, the ruling class attached great importance to the study of scriptures and despised literature, which was only a vassal of the classics. Emperor Ling founded Hongdu Gate School, so that the "door students" from humble backgrounds could rise to the top in the officialdom only by virtue of small carving skills such as calligraphy and painting.
This not only violated the privileges of the famous family to monopolize education and culture, but also seriously violated the tradition of attaching importance to scriptures since Emperor Wu of the Western Han Dynasty. Of course, this will inevitably be met with opposition and criticism from all sides.
As the head of a country, Emperor Ling should have done his best to maintain balance within the ruling group. However, he used his apostasy to create contradictions and disrupt the balance.
8. Why did Emperor Ling of the Han Dynasty establish Hongdu Gate School?
Emperor Ling's attitude towards the Taiping Qing Lingshu can more clearly reflect his rebellious mentality. We can even get a glimpse of the Ling Emperor's rebellious journey from that "attitude".
As early as the time of Emperor Shun, someone presented the "Taiping Qing Collar Book" to the imperial court. The content of this book is huge, including the five elements of yin and yang, secular personnel, miscellaneous theories of gods and witches, and the cultivation of immortals. At that time, the imperial court declared it a banned book because of its "delusion".
At the time of Emperor Huan, the hermit Xiangkai presented this book to the imperial court again, but the fate of his "forbidden book" has not changed. Only Emperor Ling has a soft spot for "Taiping Qing Lingshu". Whether Emperor Ling hoped to seek to save his rule from the heretical doctrine of banning books, the Taiping Qing Lingshu emphasized the idea of human agency, believing that people could change their destiny through subjective efforts in terms of social chaos and the rise and fall of personnel.
Perhaps this emphasis on people's subjective initiative is in line with the Ling Emperor's state of mind that is dissatisfied with the status quo and unwilling to accept the demise of his rule.
The imperial court lost control over the central departments and prefectures and counties, and the election system failed to function, which were the direct consequences of the intensifying "friend style", so Emperor Ling had to appoint people with low social status and no friends as officials; Putting aside the out-of-control Sangong and Shangshu, he worked tirelessly to personally control the selection of officials.
The establishment of Hongdu Gate School is the most important measure to prevent friends.
During the Eastern Han Dynasty, many masters of scripture were both academic authorities and big bureaucrats, who passed on scriptures from generation to generation and were officials from generation to generation, and gradually developed into a family that combined the family of scripture and bureaucracy.
The intricate relationship between these families and their protégés and former officials is the fertile soil for the increasing popularity of the "style of friends" in the middle and late Eastern Han Dynasty.
Before Emperor Ling, Taixue had always been the highest institution of learning in the Han Dynasty, and after Taixue had achieved success and passed the exam, generally speaking, its best could only be an official. However, the way out for the students of Hongdumen is much better than that of the students, and after they have completed their studies, many people "come out of the history of assassination, too guard, and people are still scholars and servants". As soon as he graduated from school, he was directly entrusted with important responsibilities and was ranked in the key departments of the central and local governments, which is rare in the history of the Han Dynasty and the Han Dynasty.
This shows that Emperor Ling has high hopes for the students of Hongdu Sect to change the shortcomings of his rule.
Although it was Emperor Ling's need to save the crisis of his reign and the anti-traditional psychology that Emperor Lingdi had formed that determined the birth of Hongdu Gate School, Emperor Ling's personal hobbies and the role of eunuchs played a role in promoting the birth of Hongdu Gate School.
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