Text / Li Xiaoyu
The 19th century was a transitional period for European art to transition from classical to modern, and French Impressionist painting was regarded as a visual representative of the discourse of aesthetic modernity, and its visual language surpassed the Western classical tradition to achieve breakthroughs in multiple dimensions of aesthetic modernity, value and significance. The 19th-century German painter Wilhelm Leibull took the theme of rural life as the core of his work. He attaches more importance to the inheritance and development of the "northern tradition" represented by the Renaissance realistic painting master Holbein. Li Xiaoyu's article examines the understanding of Holbein in the context of 19th-century art criticism and the influence of popular ideas on Leibul's creation, deepening readers' understanding of the poetic realist art style pioneered by Leibull. The female nude paintings of Frederick Leiden, an active neoclassical artist in the late 19th century, reflect the gradual decline of classical ideas and their corresponding academic art traditions after the European Enlightenment. (Wang Hongyuan)
Abstract: The 19th-century German painter Wilhelm Leibl is considered to be associated with the art of Hans Holbein the Younger and the "Northern Tradition", and he chose rural subjects for the many things that could be included in his paintings. Due to the distance between Leibul's works and Holbein in time and space and the complexity of the criticism at the time, his art provides multiple perspectives for future generations in the interweaving of contradictions and tensions, past and present, tradition and modernity, and at the same time participates in the shaping of the German national artistic tradition to a certain extent.
Keywords: Leibl, Holbein, German art, northern tradition
Painters' renewed focus on the paintings and styles of the Old Masters was sometimes motivated by a desire to emancipate themselves, whether that emancipation was to break free from a stylized fashion style or something else. The 19th-century German realist painter Wilhelm Leibl (1844-1900) chose rural themes for the many contents that could be used in his paintings, and his portrayal of peasants reflected the health and inner beauty of nature, symbolizing simplicity and loyalty, which really satisfied the fantasy of urban people about rural life and realized the artist's pursuit of pure beauty. At the same time, it should also be noted that, in terms of style and subject matter, Leibble's paintings, especially those created during the period of Lebour's retreat to the countryside and the break with urban artistic life[1], were not simply a return to traditional realism, and to a certain extent, the painter and his works were also integrated into the shaping of the tradition of "German national painting".
Holbein in the context of the 19th-century "Northern Tradition".
The realists of the 19th century valued a unconventional view of things, the freedom of literary creation, and a focus on the problems of painting and the application of technology. In the case of realist art, the old masters established a new genre by breaking with tradition, and the painters did not regard honesty, independence, and proximity to nature as national characteristics, but on the contrary, realists regarded these as the criteria for evaluating real art—Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn (1606-1669), Frans Hals (c. 1582-1666), and Hans Holbein der Jüngere (1497-1543) and others are examples of people to learn from, and although their painting styles are very different, their artistic ideas and goals are the same. However, if Holbein is examined in the context of the 19th-century "northern tradition" and the art of the German nation, the famous Old Master will take on a different picture.
Alfred Woltmann (1841-1880) described the development of Italian and German art around 1500 in Holbein und seine Zeit (Holbein und seine Zeit). Unlike Jacob Burckhardt (1818-1897) and others, who regarded Italian art as the finest, who believed that German art was formed differently than Italian art and was not as good as Italian art, Waltmann denied the primacy of Italian art (in this view, the contrast between the two countries is an important part of the history of art and art criticism[2]). Waltmann argues that the Italian and German traditions in art are developing in parallel, but the reality is that as the opposition to classicism grows louder, people no longer think of "beauty" as the carrier of reality, but as "beauty" is only a superficial phenomenon, and "northern art" is the real carrier. After the Renaissance, France inherited the tradition of Italian art, but French art did not use the techniques of the classical period to express "beauty", but showed the beauty of the picture by perfecting the painting technique. Woltman's views are quite representative, and he expounds on an important feature of northern art, that is, a "northern tradition" that is closely related to poetic realism. The works of Ludwig Knaus (1829-1910), Franz Defregger (1835-1921), Benjamin Vautier (1829-1899), and a number of other painters are of great artistic value, and if one of them is classified as a painter of the "Northern Tradition", then this art – the "Northern Tradition" - It can be considered a leading art genre, an expression of the character and artistic aspirations of the German people.
Waltmann's view is that the transition from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance took place both in Italy and in Germany, with Italy being an aesthetic shift and Germany a shift in a moral and religious direction. Specifically, due to the imperfection of the works, the Germans did not appreciate their own pictorial characteristics in this period: the Italians, on the contrary, gave full freedom to artistic creation, to the point that some of the works were more indulgent, and the Germans were often brutal and fanatical, but their physical strength and strong moral needs were evident in their appearance. An important characteristic of Germany is the individual's pursuit of realism, and Alfred Waltmann here refers to the depiction of nature and reality without any subjective feelings, although it is an objective reflection of reality, but the painting is still permeated with elements of prayer and reverence - these art that is considered to have a strong medieval color actually has a certain modern spirit. [3] Hermann Knackfuss (1848-1915) expressed the same view as Walsmann in his book on Holbein. 〔4〕
Wilhelm Waetzoldt (1880-1945) considered Darmstadt Madonna (1526-1528, fig. 1) to be Holbein's most important religious work,[5] and was undoubtedly famous even more than 300 years later in the seventies of the 19th century. The interpretation and interpretation of Our Lady of Darmstadt helps to understand the relationship between Holbein and the so-called "northern tradition". Madonna of Darmstadt, inspired by the famous Renaissance artist Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)[6], depicts a standing Madonna with a child in her arms and a family at her feet.
Fig.1 Hans Holbein, Madonna of Darmstadt, Oil on panel, 146.5×102 cm, 1526-1528, Collection of the Palace Museum, Darmstadt, Germany
At that time, there was a Madonna of Darmstadt in Darmstadt and Dresden, and experts were constantly debating which work was the authenticity, and reports of these controversies often appeared in art journals. [7] From an objective point of view, these controversies also brought Holbein more attention. The scientist and philosopher Gustav Theodor Fechner (1801-1887) recorded the controversy in a research paper in which he wrote in 1874: "The Madonna of Darmstadt is a great work, not only an important work of German painting, but also a painting loved by the German nation." [8] The kneeling figures on the left are the mayor Jakob Meyer zum Hasen (1482-1531) and his sons, and it was in his private prayer room that the Madonna of Darmstadt is also known as "The Madonna of Jacob Meyer Zum Hasen". On the right are the two wives of the patron as well as his daughter. The posture of each patron in the picture is different. Meyer himself presents a three-quarter portrait of him praying reverently, his fists and eyes looking upwards, and as a portrait of a patron, the two sons are in somewhat unusual poses: the older boy stands up on his right leg, and he holds the naked little boy in his hand— The women in the back are looking straight ahead, the girl kneeling in front of her holds a cross, her eyes are uncertain, and she doesn't seem to be engaged in prayer, as if she were looking at the little boy opposite, her white dress and bright face make her stand out from the dim background, and the woman in the middle has her eyes locked on a point outside the frame, and she also holds a cross in her hand。
The depiction of detail and the representation of the facial expressions of the characters bring the painting to life, and each person's posture is appropriate to his age. The authenticity of the picture is not only reflected in the figures, but also in the shaping of the objects in the painting, the folds of the clothes, the carpet and the jewelry all play a role in decorating the picture, and the carpet as an ornament has a realistic effect: the carpet has very realistic folds that extend to the edge of the picture, so that the viewer can see it at a glance [9], and at the same time, the folds of the carpet also have the effect of anti-visual illusion, that is, to break the "order" The dissonant details suggest that the realistic work is not a three-dimensional reality. Christl Auge (1926- ) believes that the painting also incorporates elements of Renaissance portraiture, with the precise reproduction of all family members and the detailed depiction of the clothing of the figures indicating the regional and social attributes of the figures, and the different identities of the figures are distinguished by clothing and posture, and the theme of prayer is also full of authenticity. 〔10〕
The value of Holbein's work is enhanced precisely because his art represents the confrontation and competition between the Germans and the French. In fact, in addition to Holbein, there was a renewed admiration for the work of German painters of the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance, as well as for "Northern" painters, such as Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528). Although the works of the equally famous artist Dürer also have authenticity and German national identity[11], Dürer was more concerned with imagination, spirituality, emotion, and cultivation, while Holbein was a true painter – for Holbein, color was not just the coat of his work, but the medium of communication of his artistic ideas. [12] The German critic and art historian Richard Muther (1860-1909) once said that Dürer's paintings were sacred and imaginative, while Holbein's work was secular, the result of dispassionate observation and therefore unsuitable for religious purposes. 〔13〕
In the middle of the 19th century, as people paid attention to the theme or subject matter of painting, and gradually shifted from religious painting to genre painting and portrait painting, the theme and expression of Holbein painting, as well as the freshness, independence and refinement of his works, were more and more valued because they were in line with the pursuit of the true meaning of life at that time. Holbein's portraits have distinctive characteristics, the author does not do any beautification for the protagonist of the portrait, but paints real portraits, and of course his paintings do not make the owner feel undignified. This characteristic is regarded as the essence of German art, and it is a departure from the traditional idealized "Romanesque" tradition of the image, which does not require the authenticity of the painting, is not based on nature, but only depicts the beauty of the object. In short, people at that time considered Holbein to be a true master, whose painting skills were first-class, and who was the first representative of the "art of the North", which better reflected the sincerity, independence, and natural character of the German nation that flowed from art.
Lebl as a follower of Holbein
For Wilhelm Leibul, a German painter who lived in the 19th century, Holbein was his greatest admirer of the Old Masters, who had an important influence on the former's art. Not only did Leibull learn from Holbein the mastery of painting techniques, but he also learned Holbein's famous painting subject of the praying woman, one of the latter's representative works is the aforementioned Madonna of Darmstadt.
Lebl had great respect for Holbein, and according to his friend Julius Mayr (1855-1935), his eyes were filled with reverent reverence when he looked at the only collection of Holbein's portrait of Derich Born (1509/1510-1549) in the Munich Museum of Antiquarian Paintings. In fact, Leibull was very much opposed to the imitation of the artists he admired, and only respected the sincerity of the masters towards nature and the subtlety of their paintings, which could not be achieved by easy imitation. Leibull also copied the works of other ancient painters[14] in order to find similar artistic principles and ideas, and to master the excellent laws and techniques of ancient art. [15] Some artists value formal characteristics because certain forms of painting are universal, however, this view underestimates the connection between an object and history, because the same subject is very different in different historical contexts. Leibull had a clear understanding of this, and he believed that the application of themes and forms in the works of the old masters could not make true art, and that what should be learned was the objectivity of those masters when they observed nature and the loyalty to nature when they painted.
At the time, many considered Lébl to be a master, and although his subjects were considered boring and mediocre, his painting techniques were completely comparable to those of the French painters of the time, and some critics at the time compared the young German painter to Hans Holbein the Younger more than 300 years ago. Objectively speaking, Leibl did meet the standards of the Old Masters, who in this case refer to the Dutch and Spanish painters of the Baroque period, the German painters of antiquity, and Jan van Eyck (circa 1390-1441). From the fine paintings of Gerard ter Borch (1617-1681), Johannes Vermeer (1632-1675) and Holbein to the flamboyant brushwork of Diego Velazquez (1599-1660)[16] – Lébble was able to master the style of these painters very well, despite the many differences in these styles. The assessment of the "boring and mediocre master" reflects the ambivalence of attitudes towards Leible's work, and to understand this contradiction – or rather a tension – one must enter Leibour's paintings and examine the relationship between these two painters, who have been separated by centuries.
Of all these old masters, Holbein was the most special to Leibre. As mentioned earlier, contemporaries found similarities between the two, and the similarities in painting techniques and styles between the two painters are obvious. To put it bluntly, Lébour's famous painting Die drei Frauen in der Kirche (1878-1882) is not the only one reminiscent of Holbein, with Der Jäger (1876) and Die (The Country Statesman). Dorfpolitiker (1877) and other paintings from the same period bear similarities with Holbein in terms of finesse and the style of representation of the figures. In terms of subject matter, Holbein and Leibl were not completely identical, Holbein mainly painted portraits, and occasionally touched on religious themes, while Leibull did not choose the same subject matter, he mainly painted scenes of genre paintings, so as to try new modes of fine pictorial expression.
Fig.2 Wilhelm Leibul, Hunter, Oil on canvas, 186×132 cm, 1876 It was in the collection of the Old Staatsmuseum in Berlin, Germany, but was lost in the war in 1945
The Hunter (fig. 2) was painted in 1876 and is in fact a life-size portrait of Baron Anton von Perfall (1853-1912). Although the painting was created outdoors, we cannot fully consider it to be a painting of natural light in the late 1970s, because the figures in the work are not represented by light and shadow, and the figures are not closely integrated with the landscape behind them. In other words, the composition of the picture highlights the protagonist standing upright, the outline of the edges of the figure echoes the landscape behind it very clearly, and is clearly separated from the background of the landscape behind him, and the light treatment method of the figure is consistent with the traditional method of interior portraiture.
William Lebull's pictorial and artistic qualities are also on display in The Country Statesman (fig. 3), which gave the news media the first opportunity to compare Lebull with Holbein. The protagonists of The Village Politician are the five peasants depicted next to each other on a bench, and the man on the far left of the picture wears a white apron, suggesting his identity as the owner of a small inn, but there are no other elements in the picture that give a hint of the environment of a small inn.
Fig.3 William Leibull, Country Statesman, Oil on canvas, 76×97 cm, 1877, Collection of the Winthult Museum of Art, Switzerland
The Village Politician adopts a well-balanced composition, with five peasants sitting around each other, their eyes focused on a few pieces of paper, and the most eye-catching object, the paper on which the words are written near the diagonal of the picture, is not visible to the viewer, and indeed Leibull does not necessarily want the viewer to see the handwriting on the paper. Leibull mentions them in a letter to his mother, which is a land register, and it is because of these pieces of paper that later art merchants gave it the name "village politician". [17] The youngest peasant in the painting holds the sheets of paper in his hand and is engrossed in studying the contents, the man to his right is holding his hand and chin on a cane in a thoughtful gesture, and the man in an apron on the left side of the picture does not seem to care much about the contents. Gentle sunlight shines through the window on the right rear of the picture, and you can see the winter snow from the window.
The composition of "The Country Politician" is very compact, the contrast between light and dark is also very strong, and the arrangement of the characters is symmetrical; from the visual point of view, the painting does not extend too much in space to depth, but pays more attention to the expression in the horizontal direction, which is divided into three unequal areas of equal size: left, center and right. The different parts of the painting are represented in different ways, which shows that in the early days of the painting, Leibl did not have a clear direction: a closer look reveals that the stockings of the peasant in the white apron and the hands of the man holding the land register are depicted with rough brushstrokes, but the faces and hands of the two peasants on the right are depicted with fine brushwork, reminiscent of the same technique that appeared in Three Ladies in the Church a few years later. The heads of the other figures in the picture, as well as the way in which the clothes and spaces are expressed, are somewhere between fine and rugged. The delicately depicted parts of The Country Statesman are reminiscent of the works of the ancient German masters of painting, and even the silhouettes of the figures painted with tiny blocks of color are reminiscent of Holbein's work. The overall color tone of "The Country Politician" is taupe, so the red waistcoats and white aprons of the three peasants stand out, and the striking red pigment scattered throughout the picture illuminates the overall taupe tone, which is also used by Holbein.
Both works, The Hunter and The Country Statesman, exemplify the alternation of two different painting techniques, especially the latter, which is stylistically and reminiscent of Holbein's work. Although the figures are lifelike, and even their facial expressions are depicted in great detail, they are also marked by the conformist way of portrayal of them, which is due to the fact that the figures are typified and their arrangement does not take into account the overlapping or juxtaposition of the objects in the painting, such as the incongruous movement of the baron and the hound in The Hunter and the bodies that come together in The Country Statesman. At the same time, however, it should be noted that the meaning of the painting goes beyond the scene itself, as shown in Holbein's portrait Portrait of Georg Giese (1532, fig. 4), in which the objects are arranged in a very tight manner, and the gestures of the figures also indicate their professional attributes, social status, and personal hobbies, in this work the elements of the protagonist's life are condensed and vividly expressed.
Fig.4 Hans Holbein, Portrait of Georges Guise, Oil on panel, 96.3×85.7 cm, 1532, Kunsthalle Berlin, Germany
Leibul's work is considered "very real" and fulfills the principle of pure painting. In the eyes of critics such as Adolph Rosenberg (1893-1946), Leibul's association with Holbein was more evident in the so-called honest, natural qualities that were closely linked to the German artistic tradition. 〔18〕
Leibl who became one of the artists of the "North".
The German art historian and writer Georg Jakob Wolf (1882-1936) commented on the painting The Country Statesman with great emotion, contrasting Wilhelm Leible with Hans Holbein. [19] Similarly, the German art historian and curator Eberhard Ruhmer (1917-1996) referred to the fine painting model created by Leibull in the nineteen-seventies as the "Holbein style", although he believed that the development of the old-fashioned painting style was not in keeping with the "zeitgeist" and had to do with the preference for nationalism and exoticism at the time. In other words, Rumer was not optimistic about Leibull's worship of Holbein, believing that Leibull's imitation of the Old Masters would have a negative impact on his personal principles of pure painting. 〔20〕
The artist's attitude is perhaps more noteworthy – Leibull himself admired Holbein very much, and he believed that Holbein's work expressed a true artistic idea, and that the perfection and purity of his works were exactly what he could learn from, and that Lybull inherited Holbein's way of expression in the process of studying the old masters, and gradually developed his own unique mode of fine painting, which can be seen in "Three Ladies in the Church" (fig. 5).
Fig.5 Wilhelm Leibul, Three Ladies in the Church, Oil on panel, 113×77 cm, 1872-1882, Collection of the Stedelijk Kunsthalle, Hamburg, Germany
The symbolic interpretation of portraiture was common in the 19th century, and in addition to the traditional atmosphere and dress, Leibl used posture and facial expressions to portray the characters. This technique of painting portraiture was also often used in the shaping of scenes, and for peasants, it was a tradition to show their social status by dressing up. The social status of the characters in "The Country Politician" is defined by the way they dress. In addition, by the gestures of the characters in the work, we can tell that they are representative figures of a specific group of people - clever young farmers. Drawing from his contemporaries Knaus and De Frege, this method of expression is useful for the expression of the character's character through the depiction of the figure's posture, and at the same time makes the painted scene more lifelike, as exemplified by De Frege's Alter Jäger mit Flinte im Hochgebirge (1892).
In the painting "The Country Politician", there are also elements that are painted with darker colors and rougher brushstrokes, while "Three Ladies in the Church" has reached a new level in terms of painting technique, and is completely painted with fine painting. Although the characters presented to us in both works are the focal points of the picture, and the pictures do not convey many other episodic content that can attract our attention, there are differences between the two paintings from the perspective of painting ideas. [21] In The Village Politician, all eyes are focused on the few pieces of paper in the hands of the young peasant, and when admiring the painting, the curiosity of the viewer is attracted, because one does not know what is written on the paper, so the viewer can use his imagination to compile the plot. In contrast, "Three Ladies in the Church" is different, the characters in the picture are not very connected to each other, and each person is immersed in his own little world, so it is difficult for the audience to imagine some of the storyline. Even when viewed from a very close distance, we feel that we are outside the painting, and it is precisely because of the lack of storyline that some critics dismiss the work as having no theme.
"Three Ladies in the Church", as a work of William Leibull depicting daily life, has no poetic elements and rich connotations, so this painting was also considered a soulless French painting school work at the time and was not recognized, but its technical subtlety is unquestionable. Although Adolf Rosenberg criticized the things depicted in "Three Ladies in the Church" as too banal and trivial, he had to admit that the objectivity and authenticity of this painting were shocking, and the audience could not help but be in awe when they saw this work of ordinary nature, and the painter's "honest" quality had to be praised. These attitudes reflect the fact that the critics of the time, although they compared the young German painter to the old masters of more than 300 years ago, and even Lebble, to some extent, became one of the "northern" artists, but they were also well aware of the high skill and elegance of Holbein's paintings, and considered that Lebour's talents were squandered on "meaningless" subjects, and that these "banal and boring" things were displayed on canvas without embellishment. Admittedly, however, Rosenberg still regarded The Three Ladies in the Church as a masterpiece because of his skill in painting, and credited Leibl with resurrecting Hans Holbein der Jüngere (1497-1543). 〔22〕
Germans at the time were desperate to establish their own national identity to resist the cultural invasion of France, and art – in the form of painting, sculpture and architecture – was a powerful tool for shaping that national identity. Holbein's paintings were considered to be very authentic and of high artistic value in the context of the 19th century. The 19th century was driven by the "Revival" of Holbein and the interest in "Northern" artists, which led to the desire to establish "true German art".
The emergence of the "Northern Tradition" has changed the description of the history of painting. The realist genre is marked by its proximity to nature and independence from its predecessors, and its demand for authenticity is part of the German character. In support of this assertion, other "masters of the North" have been brought to mind – including painters such as Rembrandt and Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640), who are now classified as Dutch. For example, August Friedrich Pecht (1814-1903), who took the opportunity of the 1883 Munich International Art Exhibition, said: "The works of realism, naturalism and impressionism are nothing but a constant attempt to get close to nature, to make it more realistic on canvas...... Works such as Van Eyck, Dürer, Holbein, Rubens, and Rembrandt are also the embodiment of the German national temperament. Germany is a country that does not limit individualism, especially now that we do not want to accept more authority, and individualism has developed like never before. [23] This attitude amplifies the so-called "Northern Tradition" and the scope of the German nation and its art, which naturally includes the native German painter Holbein, and on the other hand, from the point of view of the art-historical narrative, it leads to the "wrong" direction of development of the classical tradition represented by France, which lacks authenticity and the use of high painting skills, and excludes it from the German realist tradition.
Moreover, as far as art criticism is concerned, works that do not meet the standards of the time to express the authenticity of life are considered to be excessively foreign influenced, and those that are not of high artistic standard are considered to be devalued, especially those that conflict with French realism and impressionism, and coincidentally, art creators also have such opinions, such as Leible's friend Mayer. [24] In addition, the idea of the "northern tradition" also broke through the realm of pure painting, and it also influenced the art education movement in Germany in the eighties of the 19th century. [25] Therefore, it is understandable to build consensus on the basis of "northern traditions".
While learning Holbein's painting techniques, Leibl also attached great importance to Holbein's painting principles, and Leibul's paintings were undoubtedly also expressions of reality. More importantly, the details used in the works of the master painter Holbein are not simply natural imitations, but show loyalty to tradition and the stability of painting techniques, and Leibull believes that these comments praising Holbein's work can be applied to himself, and it is conceivable that even if Leibull never associated his painting with the "northern tradition", he could learn and borrow from Holbein's art in this way.
For many German critics, the characteristics of the painters of the "Northern Tradition" were honesty, independence, and proximity to nature, which were also important characteristics of the German nation, and those painters who were classified as "Northern Tradition" created a new style of painting, "pure painting", because they and their creations ensured the authenticity of art. It is not difficult to understand that Lebrie, a follower of Holbein, also became a member of the group of "northern" artists.
epilogue
In the era in which Leibl lived, simplicity, authenticity and sincerity were important characteristics of German art. As the pursuit of "German national painting" became a trend in art festivals and critics, Leibul's work, along with the works of other artists, was gradually incorporated into the so-called "northern tradition" of German national art, and even became a weapon against other "wrong" and "hypocritical" artistic ideas. [26] Although this is an abstract expectation that the painter and the viewer of the work will work together as a whole, in order to ensure the readability of the painting and the fixed place of art in a certain culture and society, the work of Holbein's follower, Leibull, shows the artist's pursuit of authenticity and straightforwardness. Poetic realism awakens innocence, and for painters and viewers living in the 19th century, far removed from the classical tradition and the Renaissance, Leibul's paintings triumph with sentimental nostalgia or vernacular subjects. The interweaving of tradition and modernity provides multiple interpretables for future generations, and at the same time, to a certain extent, participates in the shaping of German national art.
Exegesis:
[1] Li Xiaoyu, "What You See Is Everything": German 19th-Century Realist Painter Wilhelm Leibul (Part II), Oil Painting Art, No. 2, 2020.
〔2〕理查德·穆瑟和弗兰茨·冯·雷伯尔(Franz von Reber,1834—1919)和奥古斯特·弗里德里希·佩希特(August Friedrich Pecht,1814—1903)都有相同的观点。 例如，穆瑟在《绘画史》第三卷中写道："虽然在文艺复兴中意大利解决了艺术上的许多重大问题，但是意大利却没有丢勒。 "雷伯尔在《中世纪艺术史》中指出，19世纪的日耳曼大师们同法国艺术也是不相同的，他试图用更加客观理性的描述来描绘不同国家的艺术发展。 Richard Muther, History of Painting. Vol. 3, 18. and 19, Leipzig: K. Grethlein, 1909, p. 227; Franz von Reber, Art History of the Middle Ages, Leipzig, 1886.
〔3〕Alfred Woltmann, Holbein and his time. Vol. 2, Leipzig: Seemann, 1909, pp. 2-12.
〔4〕Hermann Knackfuss, Holbein der juüngere, Bielefeld, Leipzig, Velhagen & Klasing, 1897, p. 84.
〔5〕Wilhelm Waetzoidt, Hans Holbein the Younger, Königstein im Taunus, 1958, p. 79.
〔6〕John Rowlands, Holbein. The paintings of Hans Holbein the Yownger, Complete Edition, Oxford, 1985, pp. 64-66. Christl Auge, Zur Deutung der "Darmstädter Madonna", Frankfurt et al., 1993. Wilhelm Waetzoidt, Hans Holbein the Younger, Königstein im Taunus, 1958, p. 79.(关于荷尔拜因和利奥纳多的关系可以参考该文献)
[7] The most famous Holbein researcher of the time was Alfred Waltmann, who wrote many articles on the subject, and in 1866 he published a book on Holbein, which was reprinted in 1874. In addition, other scholars have also given some opinions on this issue, such as Gustav Theodore Fechner's The Question of the Authenticity of the Holbein 'Madonna' published in Leipzig in 1871, and Adolph Bayersdorfer's The Holbein Controversy, published in Berlin in 1872.
〔8〕Gustav Theodor Fechner, Über die Aechtbeitsfrage der Darmstädter Madonna, Discussion und Acten, Leipzig, 1874.
〔9〕Alarich Rooch, Stifterbilder in Flanders mnd Brabant: Stadtbirgerliche Selbstdarstellung in der sacralen Malerei des 15. Jahrband-derts, Essen, 1988, pp. 246-247.
〔10〕Christl Auge, On the Interpretation of the "Darmstadt Madonna", Frankfurt et al., 1993, pp. 124-125.
〔11〕Richard Muther, History of Painting. Vol. 3, 18. and 19, Leipzig: K. Grethlein, 1909, p. 225.
〔12〕Hermann Knackfuss, Holbein der juüngere, Bielefeld, Leipzig, Velhagen & Klasing, 1897, p. 1.
〔13〕Richard Muther, History of Painting. Bd. 3, 18. und 19, Leipzig: K. Grethlein, 1909, S. 217.(在书中,理查德·穆瑟将画家以地域为标准进行分类描述。 ）
[14] One of Leibul's copies is a copy of the Portrait of Charlotte Buttkens-Schmidt-Van Kruningen and her son Johannes Amatus from the Flemish painter Cornelis de Vos (1584-1651) around 1870. Lebour's copy measures 72.5×42.5 centimeters and is now in Cologne.
〔15〕Wolfgang Hartwig, "Break with Tradition and Remembrance. On the Origin of the Historismasbegriff", in: Michael Brix and Monika Steinhauser (eds.), Geschichte allein ist zeit. Historismus in Deutschland, Giessen, 1978, pp. 17-27.
[16] These two painters are considered to be early exponents of the one-off painting method, a technique that both Léble and Manet admired.
[17] The painting was originally called "The News", and when Lebl sent the painting to Paris, he named it "Paysans" (The Peasantry), and later it became "The Country Politician". See Boris Röhrl, Wilhelm Leibl. Leben und Werk, Hildesheim, 1994, S. 175.
〔18〕Adolf Rosenberg, "The International Art Exhibition in Munich", The Border Messengers: Journal of Politics, Literature and Art, Vol. 42 (1883) Third Quarter., pp. 619-627.
〔19〕Wolf, Georg Jakob, Leibl: A German Painter. Munich: Delphin-Verlag, 1918.
〔20〕Eberhard Ruhmer, The Leibl Circle and Pure Painting, Rosenheim Rosenheimer Verlagshaus, 1984, pp. 72-74, pp. 93-94.
〔21〕Michael Fried, Absorption and Theatricality: Painting and Bebol-ding in the Age of Diderot, Berkelev et al., 1980.
〔22〕Adolf Rosenberg, "The International Art Exhibition in Munich", The Border Messengers : Journal of Politics, Literature and Art, Vol. 42 (1883) Third Quarter., pp. 619-627.
〔23〕Friedrich Pecht, Modern Art at the International Art Exhibition in Munich 1883, Munich, 1883, pp.1-2.
[24] A comment by Julius Meyer also illustrates the role of poeticization in distinguishing between "true" and "hypocritical" realism: "Since the fifties, French literature and painting have been devoid of poetic winds, and all masks have been torn off to reveal before our eyes a naked, painful life. He also refers to articles such as "Reading the History of German Art before 1894" and "Landscapes in the Light: Impressionist Painting in Europe and North America, 1868-1910" (from the Cologne Exhibition Catalogue 1998).
[25] Reference is made here to Peter Joerissen's Art Education and Art Science in Germany, 1871-1918 and the Hamburg Art Exhibition Catalogue from 1986 to 1987.
[26] Karl Michael Haider (1846-1912) and Hans Thoma (1839-1924) also learned painting techniques from medieval German painters, but their works focused more on narrative plots.
Li Xiaoyu is an associate professor at the School of Arts, Chinese Minmin University
(This article was originally published in Art Observation, Issue 3, 2024)