Because Italy has a special position in the cultural development of European and even world history, it has an important influence on the development of the evolution of ancient civilizations, and Italy's humanistic contributions have also made great achievements, so this article will again conduct an in-depth analysis of Italy's historical development from these three aspects, review the style of the ancient Roman Empire, show the glory of the Renaissance that arose since the middle of the 14th century, and briefly understand the development of Italy in modern times.
In the past, I have a general description of Italy's cultural customs and economic development, but this article will not repeat them one by one, but only a brief understanding.
Country profiles
Italy is one of the countries of southern Europe, located on the northern shore of the Mediterranean Sea, one of the world's advanced capitalist countries, a founding member of the European Union and NATO, and a member of important international organizations such as the Schengen Agreement, the Group of Eight and the United Nations. It covers an area of 301333 square kilometers, has a population of 60.24 million, and is mainly Catholic.
Climate, geography and resources
Italy consists mainly of the Apennine Peninsula and two Mediterranean islands, Sicily and Sardinia, and its territory is surrounded by two micro-states: San Marino and the Vatican.
1) Italy is bordered by the Alps to the north, France, Switzerland, Austria and Slovenia to the north, and the Adriatic Sea, the Ionian Sea and the Tyrrhenian Sea of the Mediterranean Sea to the east, south and west, and across the sea from Tunisia, Malta and Algeria. Its coastline is about 7,200 kilometers long.
2) The northern part of Italy is the Alps and the central part is the Apennine Mountains. To the north between the two mountains is the Po River Plain, whose soil is fertile.
3) Italy is multi-volcanic and earthquake, and Mont Blanc on the Italian-French border is the second highest peak in Europe; On the west side of the Apennine Peninsula is the famous Mount Vesuvius; Mount Etna on Sicily is the largest active volcano in Europe.
4) The largest river in Italy is the Po River, which originates on the southern slopes of the Alps, and the Tiber River is the main river flowing through Rome; The larger lakes in the territory are Lake Garda, Lake Trasimeno, Lake Maggiore, Lake Como and so on.
5) Italy belongs to the subtropical Mediterranean climate, its summer is dry, the winter is warm and rainy, and the climate is relatively mild.
6) Italy's natural resources are relatively poor, hydropower, geothermal, natural gas and other energy sources are more abundant, and oil and mineral resources are scarce.
7) Italy's geothermal power generation is the second in the world, and hydropower is the ninth in the world. In addition, in 2011, Italy was the world's largest photovoltaic installed capacity (accounting for 4th of the world share), and the proportion of domestic renewable energy supply was 25% of the total energy demand.
Economic profile
Italy is a developed capitalist country, one of the four largest economies in Europe, Italy is a world leader in the field of art and fashion, Milan is the economic and industrial center of Italy, and the fashion capital of the world.
1) Italy is a developed industrial country, with developed domestic small and medium-sized enterprises, known as the "kingdom of small and medium-sized enterprises".
2) The economic development of various regions in Italy is unbalanced, in general, the industry and commerce in the north are developed, and the south is dominated by agriculture.
3) Italy is a world-famous car sports car producer, well-known brands include Ferrari, Lamborghini, Maserati, Bugatti (now France), Alfa Romeo and so on.
Major cities
1. Rome
Rome is the capital of Italy, which is the ancient city of European civilization, the center of Catholicism, the seat of the Holy See, the capital of the former Roman Empire, and from the Silk Road, there is a saying of East Luoyang and West Rome.
Known as the "Eternal City", Rome is a world-famous tourist city, the political and cultural center of Italy, and the largest city in Italy.
2. Milan
Milan is the economic capital of Italy, the "fashion capital" of the world, the former capital of the Western Roman Empire, with a population of 1.83 million, the Milan metropolitan area is the largest metropolis in Italy and one of the largest metropolitan areas in Europe and the world.
Milan has hosted two World's Fairs.
3. Turin
Turin is an important industrial center in Italy, an important manufacturing center in Italy, and the third largest city in Italy.
4. Venice
Venice is an important international tourism and cultural city in Italy, known as the "Water City".
5. Genoa
Located in northwestern Italy, on the northern shore of the Gulf of Genoa in the Ligurian Sea, Genoa is Italy's largest commercial port and important industrial center.
Genoa has a long history as the capital of the maritime hegemony of the Republic of Genoa, and in 2004 Genoa was selected as the "Cultural Capital of Europe" that year.
Social and people's livelihood
educate
1) Italy has a nine-year compulsory education system, 6 to 14 years old is the stage of compulsory education, and public schools are open to all citizens.
2) During secondary education, Latin and Greek are taught in liberal arts secondary schools, and southern Greece is known as "Greater Greece".
3) Institutions of higher learning include the University of Rome, the University of Bologna, the University of Milan, etc.
physical education
1) Italy is a sports powerhouse, the strongest sports are football, basketball, volleyball, skiing, horse racing, sailing, swimming and so on.
2) Serie A is one of the more well-known football leagues in the world.
3) Italy has hosted one Summer Olympics, two Winter Olympics, and bid for the 2026 Winter Olympics.
social security
1) Italy's social security system is similar to most developed countries in Europe, but it is different, its social security adheres to a high contribution rate and a high replacement rate, the so-called high replacement rate refers to the retirement salary of the old-age security is very close to the pre-retirement salary, which once reached 95% of the pre-retirement wage.
2) In recent years, due to the stagnation of Italy's economic development, fiscal expenditure accounts for a relatively large proportion, and its pension expenditure has declined year by year.
Healthcare
Italian medical care implements a system of free public health care and separation of medicines, and its public hospitals often have different treatment programs, mainly to avoid competition between public hospitals.
Humanistic customs and taboos
1) Italians taboo the number "13"; Gifts are taboo to send chrysanthemums and handkerchiefs; When sending flowers, it is better to be in the singular; Avoid politics and American football when talking; Sneezing in person is forbidden.
2) Italians are family-centred, hospitable and focus on ladies first.
Tourism & Scenery
1) Italy is the fifth largest tourist country in the world, with 55 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, and China is listed with the largest number of World Heritage Sites in the world.
2) Italy is rich in tourism resources, humid climate, beautiful scenery, many cultural relics and monuments, good beaches and mountains, and roads in all directions.
3) The main attractions are the Leaning Tower of Pisa, the Colosseum, Pompeii, Venice, Loch in Rome, the historic center of Florence, Monte São Giorgio, the Aeolian Islands and many national parks.
diet
1) The Italian diet is typical of the Mediterranean diet, which in recent years has been rated as the healthiest diet, and Sardinia has the largest and largest number of long-lived people in the world.
2) Italian breakfast is simple, but be sure to drink coffee. (It is said that the founder of Starbucks drank local coffee esprazo in Italy that year, and only then did he germinate the idea of opening a coffee shop.)
3) Italians love to eat fondue for dinner, but unlike China, it is similar to the Swiss cheese fondue, but replaces the cheese with eggs and butter.
4) Northern Europe is famous for dark cuisine, Eastern Europe pays attention to traditional cuisine, and the Southern European Mediterranean diet represented by Italy is mainly healthy and light; The French diet is world-famous but relatively greasy, while the Italian diet is dominated by light oils, flavored with spices and olive oil.
5) The main delicacies are pasta, Italian pizza, Italian sausage, grilled pork dishes, cheese, truffles, Italian desserts and so on.
Historical development and humanistic achievements
Historical summary
The historical origin of Italy is inseparable from Rome, which originated in Rome.
1) Due to its proximity to the Greek peninsula, the rise of Greek civilization was also accompanied by the absorption and integration of Greek civilization.
2) By the time of the Roman Empire, the territory developed into a large empire spanning three continents of Europe, Asia and Africa, and after the division of the Roman Empire, with the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Eastern Roman Empire was replaced by the Ottoman Empire.
3) The Apennine Peninsula entered a period of divided small city-type kingdoms, and each divided kingdom was independent, that is, "one city for one country".
4) From the fourteenth to the fifteenth century, Italy became the birthplace of the European Renaissance, which promoted the development and progress of human civilization and had a great influence on the development of the world bourgeois revolution.
5) But the bourgeois revolution in Italy developed late, and with the efforts of Mazzini, Garibaldi and Cavour, Italy gradually completed the bourgeois revolution and italy completed its unification.
6) During World War I and World War II, Europe was the source of war, and Italy was also an important participating country. After the end of World War II, the Italian monarchy ended and entered a period of modernization.
The history of ancient Rome and the Divided East-West Roman Empire and the Italian Renaissance will not be repeated here, and the previous article "Ancient Roman History and the Influence of the Divided East and West Roman Empire on the World" and the latter "Italian Renaissance and Its Influence" will be introduced in detail.
Only the historical development of Italy after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Italian bourgeois revolution and the history of the modern era are introduced here.
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the transition period of the Middle Ages
Ancient Rome and the Western Roman Empire had an important influence on the politics, civilization, and society of Europe, spreading more advanced political systems.
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Europe entered the medieval period of feudal society.
Under the rule of ancient Rome and the Western Roman Empire, European civilization was influenced by many aspects, and Roman law was the basis of the continental laws of later European countries, and Europe was also deeply influenced by other aspects of art, science and technology, literature, etc.
The Western Roman Empire spread Christianity and changed the polytheistic faith, especially after the Pope of Rome, under the rule of catholicism, had a profound influence on European civilization and social life, and Europe entered the dark Middle Ages.
1) In 476 AD, the Western Roman Empire was overthrown by the Germanic Odoassei, who established the Kingdom of Italy.
2) In 489-493 AD, the Ostrogothic Theodoric overthrew Odoasse and established the Ostrogothic Kingdom.
3) In 534 AD, after the Eastern Roman Empire eliminated the Vandals of North Africa, it returned to destroy the Ostrogothic Kingdom, and Italy became part of the Eastern Roman Empire.
2. The period of "one city for one country" ruled by the Germanic tribes
1. In 568 AD, the Lombards entered Italy and established the Lombard Kingdom in northern Italy and three more principalities in southern Italy to threaten the Holy See. The Italian peninsula at this time was nominally part of the Eastern Roman Empire.
2. In 751, the Lombards occupied Ravenna and deposed the viceroy of the Eastern Roman Empire, and Byzantium withdrew from the Italian peninsula.
3. In 756 AD, King Pepin III of the Franks was asked by the Pope to send troops to invade Italy and regain power for the Pope.
In the same year, the Pope founded the Papal State and accepted pepin's contribution to the city, forming the later stable papal state, which was also called "Pepin's dedication".
4. In 774 AD, the Frankish king Charlemagne destroyed the Lombard regime, and the Frankish kingdom expanded to the northern part of the Italian peninsula.
5. In 800 AD, the Pope crowned Charlemagne "Emperor of the Romans" at St. Peter's Basilica, known as the "Father of Europe".
6. In 814 AD, Charlemagne died, and the Frankish kingdom was divided into three, inherited by Charlemagne's three sons.
The Frankish kingdom was divided into eastern, western and middle Frankish kingdoms, and northern Italy originally belonged to the Middle Frankish kingdom and later belonged to east Francia. These three countries are also the prototypes of Germany, France, and Italy on the European continent, and include Switzerland, the Netherlands, Denmark, Belgium and other countries.
1) After the Kingdom of East Francia became the Holy Roman Empire, for a long time the country was basically in a situation where 300-400 princely states fought each other until Prussia unified Germany in the middle of the 19th century.
2) The Italian peninsula, because papal authority lasted almost throughout the Middle Ages.
3) France in the west has been fighting with England on the other side for nearly a hundred years, which is the famous "Hundred Years' War between England and France".
7. At this time Islam was on the rise of islam in the Arabian Peninsula, North Africa, and the Middle East. Meantime.
8. In 852 AD, the Saracens controlled Bari and established a emirate, while the Islamics began to rule Sicily in 902.
During this period, saracens and Germans invaded Italy, during which the Italian peninsula was in chaos, except for the Papal States, other areas were basically "one city for one country", and this period was also the darkest period of the Italian Middle Ages.
As Mediterranean trade gradually developed, four city-states emerged along the coast of the Italian peninsula, namely Amalfi, Pisa, Genoa, and Venice.
9. In 1130 AD, Roger II, Count of Sicily in southern Italy, ascended the throne as King of Sicily and established the Norman dynasty of Sicily.
10. In 1155, the Byzantine Emperor Manuel I sent an army to land in Puglia in an attempt to enter Italy in the south to cooperate with the forces in the north, but was resisted. By 1158, by 1158, byzazing troops had withdrawn from Italy.
11. In 1189, King Guglielmo II of Sicily died, and his designated heir, Constance, married the Holy Roman Emperor, Henry VI. Thus brought with it the long-term control of the Holy Roman Empire over the Italian peninsula.
12. In the same year, because the upper Sicily nobility did not want to be ruled by the Germans, they installed Guglielmo's illegitimate cousin Tancred as king.
13. In 1191, Henry VI demanded the throne of Sicily in the name of Constance and invaded Sicily several times.
14. In 1194, Tancred died, Henry VI seized the throne of Sicily, deposed Guglielmo III, and the Norman dynasty ended.
Digression: In 962, King Otto I of the Kingdom of East Francia was crowned Emperor of Rome, and because of his status as the crown prince of the German states before Otto I became King of East Francia, he is also known as the first Holy Roman Emperor of the Saxon Dynasty, also known as the "Father of Germany".
In 1155, Frederick I was crowned Holy Roman Emperor and king of Italy at the same time, but ruled beyond the Papal States, during which East Francia officially changed its name to the Holy Roman Empire, and the empire reached its peak, also known as "Red Beard" or "Barbarossa". During his reign, he wanted to completely control Italy through war, but was opposed by the Pope, and after five wars, Frederick I ended in defeat.
Later, the Italian peninsula was basically in the middle of the papacy, and the rest of the country was "one city for one country".
3. The Crusades
During this period, ostensibly to spread Christianity and fight against the old enemy of Islam in the Middle East, the famous "Crusades" took place.
From the 11th century to the 13th century, in the two hundred years, Western Europe organized nine "crusades", which were organized by popes and nobles of Western Europe.
This is in fact a war of aggression and plunder for religious, political, socio-economic purposes.
The main members of the Crusades, with the exception of some Western European nobles and knights, were mostly oppressed serfs and displaced people, who had little culture and regarded the promotion of religion as their life's goal, and whose spiritual pillars were God and Christianity.
During this time the Crusaders established several knightly states and gave birth to three famous orders — the Templar, the Hospital, and the Teutonic Order.
1) The Knights Hospitaller, which mainly cared for the wounded and pilgrims, continued from the Middle Ages to the present, but no longer belonged to the territory.
2) The Knights Templar is arguably the richest of the three orders, but was conspired by the King of France and the Pope to their property and killed most of their members, after which the Pope announced the dissolution of the Order.
3) The Teutonic Order, also known as the "German Knights", is as follows:
(1) He conquered the Ancient Prussians in the Prussian region in 1224 and established the Teutonic Knighthood, which was the prototype of the Prussian Principality;
(2) its chief accepted Martin Luther's Protestantism in 1525, declared the teutonic Knighthood secularized, and disassociated itself from the Holy See, and the Teutonic Knighthood was renamed the Duchy of Prussia;
(3) In 1809, Napoleon disbanded the teutonic Knights, a military organization. It has left a strong mark in the history of expansion in northeast Europe.
The Crusades ended at the end of the 13th century, but their impact was profound.
On the way to the Crusades, Western Europeans saw Islamic and Byzantine civilizations far more advanced than them, and also saw the remnants of the original Greek civilization, which contributed to the later Renaissance in Western Europe.
4. Renaissance
⬜️ At the end of the fourteenth century to the beginning of the fifteenth century, the Renaissance movement first began in Italy, and then spread to the European continent, and continued to Britain, which was the beginning of modern civilization in Europe and even the world, which was accompanied by the liberation of ideas and the pursuit of science, humanities, freedom and democracy, and gave birth to a large number of pioneers and leaders of modern science, art, literature, philosophy, etc., which had a far-reaching impact on the development of world civilization.
The specific process of the Renaissance will be introduced in detail in a special topic, which is limited and will not be repeated.
V. The Italian bourgeois revolution
overview
From modern times until the mid-nineteenth century, before the Italian bourgeois revolution, Italy was in a state of division between the kingdoms and states, and it did not achieve the unity of the whole.
1) Although Italy was the center and place of origin of the European Renaissance, until the nineteenth century, Italy was still in a state of internal cities and regions.
2) At the same time, although the Italian bourgeois revolution began very late, it brought about a series of deeper bourgeois revolutionary movements in Europe in 1848 and some time after it, including France, Prussia, austria-Hungary, etc., which was called the "People's Spring" in Europe.
3) Before the Italian bourgeois revolution, although there were many bourgeois revolutions in Europe, especially in Western Europe, most of them were repeated between the bourgeoisie and the feudal monarchy.
4) This bourgeois revolution, represented by the Italian bourgeois revolution, which swept through Europe, was a heavy blow to the feudal monarchy of the European countries, and since then, the feudal system in Europe has gradually withdrawn from the stage of history, and its countries have successively restricted the development of the monarchy with greater intensity and gradually established it in the form of legislation.
⭕️ As for the reasons for the relatively late bourgeois revolution in Italy, there are four reasons:
1) Italy's own commerce is developed, but politically fragmented, "one city for one country", its various cities are independent, and it is impossible to form unified political conditions;
2) Italy's domestic resources are poor, industrial development lacks the necessary resources, and it is difficult to form a strong industrial strength for the development of the bourgeoisie, resulting in limited economic strength of the bourgeoisie;
3) The combination of feudal rulers and merchants in various places, the feudal lord is both the ruler and the emerging bourgeois businessman, there is no strong class antagonism in Britain and France, and the current situation of the domestic bourgeoisie is basically similar to the situation after the bourgeois revolution was carried out in England and France at that time, and for the bourgeoisie in china, it does not need to carry out a bourgeois revolution;
4) Because the bourgeoisie and the feudal lords of the country are united in the various urban areas of the country, there is no unified market inside, and most of the development of commerce depends on the external market, and there is no internal motivation to launch a revolution to establish a unified domestic market.
In addition, the external conditions have three points:
1) Portugal and Spain were the first to carry out overseas colonial explorations, and after the rise of Britain and France, they were redistributed, controlling all newly opened shipping routes within their own power, which created obstacles to the primitive accumulation of capital in Italy in the early days.
2) The Ottoman Empire controlled the traditional trade routes between the East and the West, (both the road and the Maritime Silk Road exported goods to Western Europe through the eastern Mediterranean region), imposed heavy taxes on past merchants, and the traditional commercial scope of Italy was to buy goods from Asia and the eastern Mediterranean to sell them in Western Europe and make profits from them, so the rise of the Ottoman Empire posed a huge threat to Italy's traditional trade, resulting in the gradual development of its commodity economy.
3) After the opening of the new route, the commercial center of Western Europe was transferred from the Mediterranean coast to the Atlantic coast, and Italy's geographical location became unfavorable for the development of overseas trade, but it still stubbornly adhered to its original route and pattern of Mediterranean trade.
Each of these reasons hindered the development of the Italian capitalist economy.
With the gradual decline of trade in the Mediterranean region of Italy after the beginning of the Age of Discovery at the end of the fifteenth century, the bourgeoisie had no economic base, and the political revolution lost its fundamental impetus.
The Italian bourgeois revolution began with the Congress of Vienna in 1815 and the end of the Napoleonic regime, and ended with the Franco-Prussian War of 1871.
From 1815 to 1870, a bourgeois revolutionary movement for the Italian people for national independence and national unity.
(1) Revolutionary background
With the turmoil of medieval Europe and the weakening of Ottoman rule, the demise of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the signing of the Treaty of Vienna, and the defeat of Napoleon from Russia.
1) After the end of the Renaissance movement in Europe, Britain and France and other countries successively carried out bourgeois revolutions and established bourgeois rule.
2) Before this, the era of great navigation opened the history of overseas colonization and trade of European powers.
From the Kingdom of the Netherlands as the "Coachman of the Sea" to the Vikings; From the old "Empire of the Sun Never Sets" Spain to the rise of the new "Empire of the Sun Never Sets" Britain; From the once-dominant Portuguese "Armada" to the Napoleonic French colonial empire trying to unify Europe; From the rise of the Prussian bourgeoisie to the reforms of Peter I of Russia; From the fall of austria-Hungary to the Ottoman Turks.
Italy, on the other hand, has been tepid, with its maritime trade centered on the Mediterranean Sea and land along the "Silk Road"; He is powerless to participate in the scramble for the world's colonies; Coupled with the Ottoman Empire's restrictions on the main routes of trade between the East and the West, the Italian bourgeois economy gradually declined from its infancy.
1) The Italian political landscape of this period basically maintained a state of "one city, one country", the Papal States still occupied the central region of the Italian peninsula, and Italy lacked a strong political power to integrate the scattered countries.
2) At the same time, the Pope, because of his own interests and power, also obstructed the unification of the Italian peninsula, and the unity of Italy lacked religious support.
3) But with the bourgeois revolution in Full Swing in Europe, especially the establishment of the Italian Republic and its later Kingdom of Italy, which was ruled by Napoleon after the invasion of Italy, these gave rise to a deeper nationalist ideology among the Italian people.
(ii) The prelude to the Italian bourgeois revolution
When Napoleon's monarchy began to decline, the other monarchs he had previously defeated tried to consolidate their power by satisfying the nationalists, creating a good time for the revolution.
1) With the defeat of France under Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna was officially convened to redraw the European continent.
2) In Italy, the independent governments of the pre-Napoleonic era were restored, some of which were directly ruled and some of which were influenced by the European powers.
3) There are groups in several Italian states that once again push for the idea of a unified Italian state, burning the flames of nationalism that have long been ignited among the populace.
4) The struggle for the unification of Italy was considered a confrontation with the Austrian Empire and the Habsburgs, as they directly controlled northeastern Italy at the time and were the single most powerful force hindering unification.
5) Those who supported unification also faced opposition from the Holy See, especially in the failure of confederation with the Papal States that gave them a degree of autonomy, and Pope Pius IX was afraid that abandoning local power would persecute Italian Catholics.
6) Even those who wish to see the peninsula unite as a nation, there are many different groups that cannot agree on the system that a unified country should implement. Some of these proposals held that confederation should be established under the pope's rule; Other major revolutionary groups wanted a republic.
7）
1. The movement from the "Charcoal Burning Party" to the "Italian Youth Party"
Guezepez Mazzini organized one of the most influential revolutionary organizations, the Charcoal Burning Party in southern Italy, with ideas from the French Revolution and members mainly from the middle class and intellectuals.
After the Congress of Vienna divided the Italian peninsula among the European powers, the "Charcoal Party" dispersed to the Papal States, the Kingdom of Sardinia, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, the Duchy of Modena, and the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venice. He also launched several riots from 1820 onwards.
Due to the failure of Napoleon III's attempt to unify Italy, the "Charcoal Party" sentenced him to death, and almost assassinated him on this ground. Most of the leaders of the unification movement are members of this organization.
Two important figures in the unification movement were the Italian unification advocates Guezepe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi.
Among the more conservative proponents of constitutional monarchy, Cavour and Vittorio Emanuele II, who later became the first King of Italy, were both important figures.
Cavour, Garibaldi and Mazzini are also known as the "Three Masters" of the Italian bourgeois revolutionary unification movement.
1) As a result of several campaigns, the "Charcoal Burning Party" was suppressed, and after Mazzini's release from prison in 1831, he went to Marseille and founded a new political organization in the local area called the "Italian Youth Party", with the goal of unifying Italy.
2) Garibaldi of Nice (later part of the Kingdom of Sardinia) took part in the Piedmontese uprising in 1834 and was sentenced to death and eventually fled to South America. He stayed there for fourteen years, fought in several wars, and returned to Italy in 1848.
3) In 1814 the "Charcoal Party" began to organize revolutionary activities in Naples, and by 1820 it was strong enough to invade Naples on its own, forcing the king to agree to a new constitution drafted by the "Charcoal Party".
4) In 1821, the revolution of the "Charcoal Burning Party" was suppressed by Austria.
2. Rebellion of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
In 1820, the Spaniards succeeded in overthrowing the Constitution and began a bourgeois movement.
◾️ A regiment of members of the "Charcoal Party" under the command of Gugremo Pepe in the army of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, led by Gugremo Pepe, revolted to conquer the peninsula of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and King Ferdinand I agreed to promulgate a new constitution.
◾️ Because the revolutionaries did not win public support, they became the "army of the Holy Alliance" composed of Russia, Prussia and Austria. Thereafter, Ferdinand I abrogated the Constitution and began systematically purging the revolutionaries.
3. Piedmont rebellion
The revolutionary movement in Piedmont was aimed at expelling the Austrians and unifying Italy under the Savoy dynasty. It was eventually suppressed by the Holy League.
★ Piedmont was the initiating region of the Italian unification movement, which began to lead the revolution as the king of the states, and eventually its royal family was also known as the royal family after the unification of Italy.
4. The Rebellion of 1830
Around 1830, revolutionary consciousness in support of a unified Italy grew, and a series of movements laid the foundations for the establishment of a state on the Italian peninsula.
1) Francis IV, Duke of Modena, hoped to become king of northern Italy through the revolution to expand his sphere of influence. Encouraged by his explicit declaration in 1826 that he would not undermine the unity of Italy, the local revolutionaries began to organize.
2) In 1831, during the July Revolution in France, the new King of the July Dynasty, Louis Philippe, ascended to the throne. He promised revolutionaries, including Mazzini, to help Italy in its revolutionary campaign, and if Austria tried to interfere with the army, he would intervene.
3) Fearing losing the throne, Philip did not help in the Mazzini-planned uprising and informed the Pope of the matter. In 1831, the Papal police learned of Mazzini's planned rebellion and arrested him and other rebels.
4) At the same time, other revolutionary movements took place at the papal legations in Bologna, Ravenna, Imola, Ferrara, Pezzaro and Urbino. These successes in replacing the papal flag with the tricolour of the revolutionary movement quickly spread throughout the papal legation and proclaimed a unified Italian state in the newly formed local government.
5) The Revolution in Modena forced its dukes to flee, and subsequently the Grand Duchy of Modena adopted the tricolor flag.
6) The areas where rebellions took place were planned to be merged into a "unified Italian province", when the papal state turned to Austria for help against the revolutionaries.
7) Under Austrian pressure, King Philippe of the July Dynasty of France betrayed Mazzini, refused to provide any military assistance to the revolution, and arrested Italian patriots living in France.
8) In 1831, Austrian troops entered the Italian peninsula to suppress revolutions everywhere and capture Mazzini, the leader of the revolutionary movement. Mazzini went into exile.
The First War of Independence (Italian bourgeois revolutionary movement of 1848-1849)
By the mid-nineteenth century, divided Italy was under the rule of Austria, which had inherited the Holy Roman Empire, and the various states were independent and multi-level, seriously hindering social progress and the development of capitalism.
⭕️ The feudal aristocracy, in collusion with the Austrian rulers, opposed any form of social change and national unity in order to safeguard their vested interests and privileges; The peasants, who account for 80 percent of the country's population, are precisely the main force in the reunification of the country.
1) In January 1848, the people of Palermo, the capital of Sicily, first revolted, kicking off the official Italian Revolution.
The strong support of the broad masses of the peasants led to the victory of the insurrectionists one after another, the bourgeois liberals established their own provisional government, the revolution developed rapidly, and soon a revolutionary upsurge appeared throughout the country.
2）
3) On 18 and 22 March 1848, national uprisings against Austrian rule were held in Milan and Venice, proclaiming republics; In November of the same year, a popular uprising broke out in Rome.
4) On February 5, 1849, the Roman Constituent Assembly opened.
At the Rome Constituent Assembly, Garibaldi, the leader of the Italian National Liberation Movement, proposed the establishment of the Roman Republic, and everyone enthusiastically supported it.
5) On February 9, 1849, the Roman Republic, headed by the Italian bourgeois revolutionary Mazzini, was established and the papal regime was overthrown.
6) In April 1849, the revolutionary movements in Italy were suppressed.
France, Austria, Spain and the Kingdom of Naples formed a coalition of counter-revolutionaries to strangle the revolution.
7) The Roman Republic was overthrown in July 1849; Venice fell in August of the same year. The bourgeois revolution in Italy ended in 1848.
The revolution led to the fall of the French July Dynasty and the establishment of the Second French Republic; Although the Italian states were restored, under the new bourgeois constitution many revolutionary ideas were put into practice, sowing the seeds of the second revolutionary movement.
(iv) Second War of Independence (Establishment of Italy)
The First War of Independence, centered on the Italian Piedmontese Revolution, was an attempt by King Alberto of Piedmont to unify Italy, and although it ended in failure, neither the Italians nor the Piedmontese gave up.
1) In 1852, when Cavour became Prime Minister of Piedmont, he realized that the Kingdom of Sardinia alone could not accomplish the unification of Italy, and therefore hoped to use the power of Britain and France to drive out the Austrians.
2) In 1855, the Kingdom of Sardinia joined the Crimean War and supported the Anglo-French Alliance, and although the demands of the Kingdom of Sardinia at the post-war Paris Peace Conference were ignored, they were isolated due to Austria's swaying left and right in the war, and the Kingdom of Sardinia was able to unify Italy in a better international environment.
3) On January 14, 1858, an assassination attempt by Italian nationalists to assassinate Napoleon III brought about a turnaround for the Italian national independence movement.
Although the assassination attempt failed, Napoleon III's experience in joining the Italian "Charcoal Party" in his youth made him see the demands of the Italian people, and in order to contain and suppress Austria's political purposes, he finally decided to support the Italian revolutionary movement.
4) In the summer of 1858, Cavour met with Napoleon and the two sides agreed to jointly fight against Austria. The parties sign an agreement, in accordance with the agreement:
(1) the Kingdom of Sardinia took over Austrian territories in Italy (Lombardy and Venice) as well as Parma and Modena after the war;
(2) At the same time, France will acquire the territory of the Kingdom of Sardinia in the foothills of the Alps, Savoy and Nice;
(3) Central Italy (Papal States) and southern Italy will remain as they are.
5) In March 1859, the Piedmontese launched an independence movement. On June 4 of the same year, at the Battle of Magenta, the combined French and Sardinia defeated the Austrian army, and the Austrian army withdrew in most of Lombardy, and the coalition army entered Milan.
6) On June 24, 1859, at the Battle of Sufalino, the Allies again defeated Austria, and austrian troops withdrew to the Venetian border fortress.
⭕️ Protests broke out in France due to an increase in the number of French deaths on the Allied side; Coupled with the appearance of Prussia and the Holy See. Napoleon III decided to sign a ceasefire agreement in Liberty Town on July 12, 1859, ending the war.
The Italians won the Lombardy region but failed to regain Venecia. Cavour suggested continuing military action, but King Emmanuel II refused, and Cavour resigned as prime minister in anger.
7) In 1860, the Kingdom of Italy was founded.
This campaign had a profound impact on the conduct of future military wars. Henri Dunant witnessed the battle, witnessed the suffering of wounded soldiers on the battlefield, and came up with the idea of launching a campaign that eventually led to the adoption of the Geneva Conventions and the creation of the International Red Cross Movement.
(v) The Third War of Independence (Austro-Prussian War)
1) In 1866, when war broke out between Prussia and Austria for the right to compete with the German Confederation, Italy seized the opportunity to occupy Venetia and signed an agreement with Prussia on April 8 to form an alliance.
2) On June 20 of the same year, the Kingdom of Italy declared war on the Austrian Empire.
3) In the context of Italian unification, the Austro-Prussian War is also known as Italy's "Third War of Independence".
4) At the request of King Vittorio Emanuele II, Garibaldi led his "Red Shirts" in a campaign.
The "Red Shirts" originated in the period of the Kingdom of Sardinia and were neither the regular army of the Kingdom of Sardinia nor the regular army of the later Kingdom of Italy. He was a volunteer army organized by Garibaldi for the purpose of unifying Italy, but it shook Europe and was a military force on the same level as the most elite armies of the European powers of the same period.
5) On 24 June, the Royal Italian Army was defeated by the Austrian army at the Battle of Custica.
6) On 3 July, Prussia defeated Austria at the Battle of Sadowa and the Prussians approached Vienna. At the same time Garibaldi's "Red Shirts" defeated the Austrian army and quickly occupied most of Tyrol, but the king demanded that Garibaldi withdraw his troops, and Tyrol fell into Austrian hands.
7) On 20 July, Persano led the Italian and Austrian navies in a contest near the island of Lisa in the Adriatic Sea.
The Austrian armored ship Archduke Ferdinand Max rammed the Italian armored ship King of Italy, causing the latter's 400 crew members to sink with the ship; Another gunboat, the Wrestling, was also shelled and exploded here.
The Battle of Liza ended with the defeat of the Italian Navy, which failed to capture the island of Lysa.
8) Garibaldi's "Red Shirts" achieved an important victory, and on July 21, at the Battle of Bechica, the "Red Shirts" defeated the Austrians, captured a large area of Trentino's land, and marched towards Trento.
9) On 26 July, prussia signed an armistice between Prussian Prime Minister Bismarck and the military objectives of Prussian Prime Minister Bismarck; On August 12 of the same year, the King of Italy declared an armistice with Austria.
As with the Second War of Independence, Garibaldi's "Red Shirts" were recalled by the King of Italy when the Austrian army of Lianke regained lost ground.
Garibaldi resigned on his way back to the army, replying with the letter "I obey", which he chose to end in the same way as Gaful.
10) In this war, Italy recaptured Veneto, leaving only the Papal States with French garrisons to complete the unification of Italy.
11) The Austrian Empire, due to the defeat of the Austro-Prussian War and the defeat in Italy, the Hungarian independence movement broke out within it, and eventually established a dualistic constitutional monarchy of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and the Austrian Empire fell.
12) During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, Italy remained neutral in order to resist French resistance to its final unified revolution to recover the Papal States.
13) In the same year, the city of Rome was finally incorporated into the Kingdom of Italy, and the territory of the Papal States retreated to the vatican city, which was equivalent to the extinction of the name.
At this point, the Italian unification movement ended, and so did its bourgeois revolution.
1. After the Roman Empire, Italy for the first time realized the reunification of the Apennine Peninsula by the Italians, and Italy entered a period of basic unification.
2. With the outbreak of World War I and World War II, Italy chose sides in the two wars to reverse the water, and its combat effectiveness was average, and it no longer regained the glory of the Roman legions.
3. After the unification of the Kingdom of Italy, it actively participated in the frenzy of imperialist countries dividing up the world, and became one of the European powers and one of the world powers at that time.
Sixth, the development of modern Italy
After italy's independent statehood, its economic situation lagged behind other Western European countries, and its political situation was relatively turbulent.
1) Due to the huge economic gap between north and south Italy, it has forced the continuous relocation of Italians from the south to the north or to the New World.
2. Before the First World War, Italy had signed a Triple Alliance with the German Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire, but with the outbreak of The First World War, Italy suddenly joined the Allies.
(3) After the war, Italy did not fully acquire the land promised by Britain and France.
4. The domestic situation continued to be disturbed by diplomatic defeats coupled with the enormous impact of the war on the Italian economy and society. The Fascist Party took advantage of this period's rise to power.
5. In 1929, during the reign of Pope Pius XI, the then Italian Prime Minister Mussolini signed the Treaty of Lateran with The Holy See Secretary of State Gaspari, and the Papal States officially collapsed and replaced by the newly established Vatican City State, and Italy was truly unified.
6. During the period from 1922 to 1943, when Mussolini's "Italian National Fascist Party" came to power, the Kingdom of Italy is also commonly referred to by historians as "Fascist Italy".
7. In The Second World War, Italy sided with the Axis powers, which was mainly responsible for cooperating with Germany's war on the southern front, including North Africa and Greece, and its combat strength not only disappointed Germany, but also lost to the Greek military and civilians in the Greek battlefield, which was also the first victory of the Allies during World War II. Later in the war, Italy turned to the Allies.
8. In 1943, Mussolini and his fanatical followers of fascism established an Italian Social Republic in northern Italy, a puppet regime of Nazi Germany, but with the end of World War II, it also quickly perished.
9. After the defeat in World War II, the Italian monarchy was abolished and replaced by the establishment of the Italian Republic.
VII. The Italian Republic
The Second World War brought economic damage and social division to Italy, and italian people were rife with resentment.
1) With the abdication of Vittorio Emanuele III, his son, the new King Umberto II, was pressured by whether Italy would go into another civil war, and was eventually forced to accept a referendum to decide whether Italy would retain the monarchy or become a republic.
On June 2, 1946, the Republicans won 54% support. Italy officially became a republic, the present-day Republic of Italy.
3. After the end of World War II, Italy's economy developed rapidly after the establishment of a republic and the assistance provided by the Marshall Plan of the United States, and its development rate was second only to that of West Germany.
4. However, with the advent of the economic crisis, coupled with the end of the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union, the United States is dominant, and the United States deliberately suppresses the European region to prevent the rise and transcendence of the European region.
5. After the Stagnation of the Italian economy and the Greek debt crisis, Italy formed the "Stupid Pig Five" with Spain, Portugal, Greece and Ireland.