king
east
Since the new century, the concept of Yuan poetry has been widely known in the poetry research community, and Zhang Zao actually has the merit of initiating it. In his famous essay "Dangerous Travel towards the Landscape of Language", he dealt with yuan poetry a lot, and although it was contaminated with the subtle words of the poet, he still put forward the perspective of yuan poetry. His doctoral dissertation, "The Quest for Modernity: On New Chinese Poetry Since 1919"[1], penetrated the concept of Yuan poetry into the overall investigation of modern Chinese poetry, making Yuan poetry one of the core concepts of modern Chinese poetry writing, especially modernist practice, although due to the excessive scope of the discussion - from the modern period to the contemporary period - there is also a danger of making the concept of Yuan poetry boundless and then disappearing. Zhang Zao's articles and doctoral dissertations remind us that it is necessary to reflect on and retrospect the concept of yuan poetry in modern Chinese poetry, which not only helps to understand the modernity characteristics of modern Chinese poetry, but also reflects, deconstructs and reconstructs the concept of yuan poetry in this process. This paper first attempts to re-understand the concept of meta-poetry from three perspectives: first, to examine the relationship between meta-poetry and language, as a radical modernist writing practice, the construction of meta-poetry is inseparable from the support of modern language philosophy; second, to think about the relationship between meta-poetry concepts and creative concepts, and to confirm the religious and romantic sources of meta-poetry in the genealogy of concepts; third, it is to distinguish the relationship between meta-poetry and transcendental poetry and pure poetry, trying to recognize the possibility of yuan poetry as a poetic method, theory and even type. Finally, on the basis of the above, the contemporaneity of meta-poetry is discussed.
One
The Construction of Meta poetry, Radical Modernism and the Philosophy of Language
The words of the German Romantic poet Novalis were used by Zhang Zao as the inscription at the beginning of the article "Dangerous Travel towards the Language Storm" towards the storm of language: "It is precisely the quality of language that is immersed in language itself that is not known." That's why language is a wonderful and fruitful secret. Language is the logical starting point of Zhang Zao's yuan poetry, and there is also a wonderful identity between yuan poetry and language. Poetry may actually be "the quality of poetry immersed in the poetry itself." Zhang Zao defines and describes the Yuan poem as follows:
The key feature of contemporary Chinese poetry writing is the immersion in the ontology of language, that is, the process of poetry allows the material entity of language to acquire a concrete sense of space and establish itself as a poetic quality. In this way, a new kind of self-referential and lyrical objectivity is bound to emerge in the poetic methodology. The awareness of the writing itself leads to the lyrical action itself as the theme, and this will most directly show the poetic nature of the poem. "Metapoetry", or "metaphysics of poetry", i.e., poetry is about the poem itself, and the process of poetry can be read as a process of revealing the writer's posture, his writing anxiety and methodological reflection and justification. Thus, yuan poetry often first asks how to invent a kind of speech, and use it to break the silence of the universe that haunts human beings. [2]
This is Zhang Zao's most detailed description of Yuan Shi, even compared to his doctoral dissertation. Immersion in the ontology of language means that the subjectivity of the poet dissolves into the linguistic activity to the greatest extent and becomes the subjectivity of language. In the same article, Zhang Zao used Bai Hua as an example to comment: "Lyrical I (the voice of the poem) dissolves its writer's posture into the process of objectification of linguistic self-discipline, so that the poem points to the negative qualities of aesthetics such as blankness, silence, and poetic absence (in fact, it is just the quality of reality) and makes it reproduced in the context of a structure in the most accurate and logical name." [3] The lyrical subject (lyrical "I") is hidden in the linguistic subject, and what is important is the "linguistic anti-interference and reflective character"[4] "self-referential and lyrical objectivity", or "the objectification process of linguistic self-discipline". It can be seen that meta poetry is an incomparably radical modernist poetry writing practice.
The popularity of the concept of yuan poetry has a lot to do with the rise of the philosophy of language in China at the turn of the 1980s and 1990s, and is more deeply rooted in the linguistic turn of the humanities in the twentieth century. Coincidentally, Yu Jian, also a third-generation poet, also talked about Yuan poetry under his position of "rejecting metaphors", but in fact, between 1993 and 1995, "Yuan poetry was obscured in the reference." Obscured in metaphors. Become 'present' obscured by metaphors"[5]. The term yuanshi appears only occasionally in the theory of jian poetry, "the name creates the yuan poem, and its metaphor is the meta metaphor, and the signifier and the signifier are the unidentified".[6] At the same time, he opposes "naming" to "proper name" and considers naming "beginning, divine, and creative",[7] while correcting names is a cultural metaphor that he needs to reject, and Yu Jian does not seem to be able to clearly express his poetic thoughts. In fact, why can't the proper name be an effort to name it? But both Zhang Zao and Yu Jian associate Yuan poetry with the poet's naming ability, but Yu Jian has a rigid understanding of this. Zhang Zao's view of yuan poetry is more dialectical and rounded. Zhang Zao apparently believed that naming could not be done once and for all, but required the poet's continuous efforts. Zhang Zao interpreted the dilemma of speech in Lu Xun's "Wild Grass" in this way: "The posture of the 'I' who speaks is an image of a 'I' who, although in a language dilemma, is always trying to improve and perfect himself... From the perspective of meta-poetry, it can be said that 'I' suffer from aphasia; 'I' must make 'my' aphasia understandable through constant naming; 'I' must get out of 'my' aphasia. [8] This integrates naming more into the dynamic process of language activity. The naming is mystified by Yu Jian, while in Zhang Zao's case, the naming is equated with "language speaking"[9], which is more likely to show the ideological nourishment of modern language philosophy.
In Zhang Zao's doctoral dissertation, there is obviously a retrospective process of the concept of yuan poetry, and he places his personal concept of yuan poetry in the history of modern poetry to investigate, and draws a clue to the rise and fall of yuan poetry, but at the same time it also makes yuan poetry suspicious. It can be seen that Zhang Zao tried to summarize the practice of Chinese modernist poetry with yuan poetry, and regarded yuan poetry as the core of Chinese modernist poetry, so yuan poetry became synonymous with radical modernist practice. Zhang Zao mentioned Lu Xun, Wen Yiduo, Liang Zongdai, Bian Zhilin, Feng Zhi, Guo Lusheng, Huang Xiang, Beidao, Bai Hua and others in his doctoral dissertation, all of whom were inextricably linked to Yuanshi, but in the three chapters on Lu Xun (chapter two), Beidao (chapter seven), and "post-obscure" poets (chapter eight), the discussion of Yuanshi was more sufficient, revealing the intention of constructing the concept of Yuanshi and the strong linguistic and philosophical color of language. In the three chapters on Wen Yiduo (chapter 3), Liang Zongdai (chapter 4), Bian Zhilin, and Feng Zhi (chapter 5), the three chapters deal more with yuan poetry, involving the relationship between yuan poetry and the spirit of the times (Wen Yiduo's nationalism), yuan poetry and cosmic consciousness, and yuan poetry and Chinese tradition. In this way, the sixth chapter, "From Underground Literature to Obscure Poetry: The Revival of Modernist Poetry During the Cultural Revolution and Later" is only a prelude to the discourse, that is, the transition from modern to contemporary. The object of the thesis has continued from modern to contemporary, but the structure is a little unusual, the first chapter is "The Development and Continuation of Chinese New Poetry Modernism (1919-1949)", the second chapter is "Lu Xun: "Weeds" and the Discourse of Language and Life Dilemmas", which shows that in addition to the traditional new poetry modernist concept combing, Zhang Zao must find another way, he must extract and condense the concept of yuan poetry from the modernist writing of new poetry. Not all new poets who adhered to the principles of modernist writing could fulfill this desire. Sure enough, among the many poets discussed in the first chapter, only two poets, Wen Yiduo and Feng Zhi, are considered to be related to Yuan poetry: Wen Yiduo's "Backwater" shows "an inner struggle between a shocking genius poet and a patriotic intellectual, a decadent and depraved resignation to fate and idealistic intervention in life", and thus "has the characteristics of 'yuan poetry', showing the anxiety and uneasiness of the soul, but from an aesthetic point of view extremely creative". [10] Feng Zhi's sonnets, on the other hand, indicate that he "adopted a rejection of the narcissism of the Rilke-style meta-poetry, which stimulated his imagination by genuinely participating in the world". [11] However, in Zhang Zao's discussion of the two, the concept of Yuanshi only reaches the point, and the word Yuanshi only appears twice in the first chapter. The discussion of Yuanshi is really unfolded in the second chapter, but it is precisely because of Lu Xun as the object that the proposition of Yuanshi becomes a symptomatic problem.
Zhang Zao talks about the language crisis and life dilemma that Lu Xun experienced between 1924 and 1927, and this crisis and dilemma is manifested in the prose poetry collection "Weeds", "What is strange is that this fact has not yet attracted sufficient attention from the academic community. A few researchers seem to have noticed the crisis of speech, but unfortunately have failed to grasp its significance for the internal mechanisms of language. This point plays a key role in understanding Lu Xun's works, especially the Wild Grass, which was produced in this period. That is to say, a unique interactive relationship arose between the linguistic dilemma and the strong will to overcome it, and it was this interaction, together with other factors, that gave rise to Lu Xun's greatness and the modernity of his literature, which had long been obscured." [12] The obscured part that Zhang Zaozhi is excavating is the modernity of Lu Xun's "Weeds", which is more the aesthetic modernity it contains than the critical power of Lu Xun in the discourse of enlightenment and revolution, which has been fully released in the long history of criticism. Weeds has a complexity of aesthetic form and social content. If Zhang Zao wants to emphasize its aesthetic form, to some extent, he can only give up the in-depth interpretation of its social content, which also constitutes an oppression of the latter. Zhang Zao's linguistic criticism clearly emptied the socio-historical content of "Weeds", which he deliberately pursued, and Yuanshi is the abstract result of this linguistic criticism. Perhaps in Zhang Zao's view, in order to establish the concept of Yuan poetry, such an adventure is worth it.
It should be noted that even in this chapter, there is a mixture of the concepts of meta-poetry and pure poetry, "Lu Xun's erudition is extraordinary, and he has a good grasp of many stylistic schools of modern world literature: Hermeticism, metaphor, negative ideas, language egocentrism, dream structure, and so on." Much of this is incorporated into the poetics of Western modernism, as Hugo Friedrich and Michael Hamburg argue in their books. "Wild Grass" - completely different from Lu Xun's literary view of "for life", there is no doubt that it takes the 'pure poetry' route." In fact, many of the theoretical resources used by Zhang Zao to elucidate meta-poetry come from Friedrich's The Structure of Modern Poetry,[13] and Hamburg's The Truth of Poetry. This was the influence of specific poetic theory, and in poetic thought, Zhang Zao relied more on the language ideas of the late Heidegger. Zhang Zao elaborated through "Good Stories": "Such a dream, through the language magic of pure poetry, is so beautifully created, just as Lu Xun did, from the modernity of poetry, which is also the only way for the subject of modern China to inhabit poetically." This fully reflects his attachment to the "utopian language" as "one coordinate and one frame of reference", "a utopian language, a language of a completely different type, i.e., the language of all modern impulses in one way or another". [15] This utopian language has a tendency to detach itself from concrete socio-historical circumstances and is intended to become a universal abstract truth, as does meta-poetry, which represents the essence of "universal modernist literature"[16].
The Poetry of Zhang Zao / People's Literature Publishing House / 2010
Zhang Jujube
Two
Meta-poetry and creation: a religious or romantic interpretation
In addition to the level of linguistics, yuanshi also has a cosmological or existential level, the latter is suppressed, but always appears from time to time, Zhang Zao said when discussing yuanshi: "Yuanshi often first asks how to invent a kind of speech, and use it to break the silence of the universe that haunts human beings", which links linguistic theory with existentialism. Zhang Zao's so-called "metaphysics of poetry" also conjures up thought of metaphysical ontology, not just a figurative statement. Song Lin correctly commented: "There is a echo between Zhang Zao's 'yuan poetry writing' and the writing of European and American modern and contemporary poets such as Marame, Stevens, and Celan, that is, interrogating the mystery of language and existence. The spiritual height of poetic behavior is the goal of meta-poetry writing, and the process of becoming poetry itself receives more attention than the revelation of a defined theme. Epistemologically, yuan poetry writing is the original antithesis of the poetic nature of the poem itself, and in the methodology, it is to establish the degree of lyricism so that the process of forming poetry is synchronized with the presentation of objectivity. [17] "Interrogating the Mystery of Language and Existence" is the meaning of the existence of yuan poetry, and although "language is the house of existence",[18] this does not prevent yuan poetry from continuing to question existence. Only by entering the level of cosmology and existentialism can the sublime meaning of meta-poetry finally be highlighted, which is "the spiritual height of poetic behavior".
In his doctoral dissertation, Zhang Zao regarded "cosmic consciousness" as "the highest point of Liang Zongdai's poetics", suggesting the relationship between yuan poetry and cosmic consciousness that interested him:
But what the new poetry lacks is not only the formal construction of symbolism that Valery and the ancient Chinese poets are familiar with, but also the subtle connection of the "I" with the external world, and the presentation of this connection is both a technical problem and a worldview problem. Liang Zongdai hopes to find a way to express the poet's mind and the pulse of nature, and the first thing that needs to be broken is the dualistic dogma of materialism and idealism. In his view, the deepest poetry lies in awakening "cosmic consciousness". This consciousness is connected to the universe, pure and independent, existing in the universe itself and in all the outward forms of the world, while also occupying the human heart in an inner way. The highest poetry does not merely highlight the dualistic opposition between man and the universe, but the opposite, but rather makes them forget each other of their own existence. "We are in the universe, and the universe is in us: the universe and our bottom self are only one, reflecting the same shadow and reflecting the same echo." The highest art of poetry is to speak out in the great harmony between man and the universe. [19]
Meta-poetry also clearly contains a cosmic consciousness and cosmology, not only a technical problem of poetry but also a "question of a worldview", pursuing "speaking out in the great harmony between man and the universe". Undoubtedly, Zhang Zao's discourse here has an air of mysticism, and the latter is indeed shared by modern Chinese and Western poets such as Liang Zongdai and Valery. What is remarkable is that Zhang Zao also noticed the cultural differences behind Chinese and Western poetry: "Liang Zongdai has repeatedly compared the works of Western modernism, such as Valery, and especially Baudelaire, derived from dualistic transcendental ideas, with the traditional Chinese monistic fixation worldview, which can probably not be regarded as a flaw in Liang's 'author poetics'." Because, as Pauline Yu in another paper brilliantly argues, ancient Chinese poetry is not transcendental. Although this fundamental difference does not seem to have had a decisive impact on the first-rate creation of symbolism, Liang Zongdai should have noticed the subtle difference between Baudelaire and Tao Yuanming's "I and the universe" in his discussion of the relationship between the two. In his view, tao's poems express the poetic tradition of self-integration into the universe and effortlessly and easily and naturally converting to the innate language art of The Chinese language. [20] This is Zhang Zao's discovery of the contradictory discourse in Liang Zongdai's poetic theory, and interestingly, Zhang Zao then discovered Baudelaire's "renunciation of dualistic transcendentalist ideas" with paul Hoffmann,[21] thus further aligning Baudelaire with traditional Chinese monistic immanence, "Liang Zongdai and Zhou Zuoren and other early followers of Western symbolism have intuitively felt that symbolism seems to be converging with tradition in terms of methodology." Therefore, they actively advocated both inheriting the classical literary tradition of their own country and learning from Western modernists in order to establish the modernity and legitimacy of the new poetry. Liang Zongdai's reliance on ancient Chinese intellectual texts, such as the borrowing of 'condensed mind interpretation', 'material and self-forgetfulness', 'meditation out of god', 'harmony' and 'cosmic consciousness' to illustrate the symbolism of the 'best poetry', made the esoteric French poets such as Mallarmé, Baudelaire, Valery and other unfathomable French poets more intimate, narrowed the distance between them and the new poetry writers, and thus made his Chinese counterpart seriously think about a problem: how to reconcile with them after breaking with their own traditions. [22] Like Liang Zongdai, there is a contradiction in Zhang Zao's exposition of the "convergence" of Chinese and Western poetics, not to mention the compromise in it; the reader can ask whether it is the Western "dualistic transcendentalist thought" that has been abandoned and thus approached China's "monistic fixation", or whether China's "monistic imposition" has been abandoned and thus approached the "dualistic transcendentalist thought" of the West.
Therefore, the question that remains is whether Zhang Zao's Yuanshi discourse can surpass Liang Zongdai's relevant discourse? Obviously, this is one of the symptomatic manifestations of the meta-poetry problem. Like Liang Zongdai's symbolist discourse, Yuanshi is also intended to communicate Chinese monistic immanence with Western dualistic transcendence. But unlike Liang Zongdai, Zhang Zao's yuan poetry discourse is more inclined to the Western dualistic transcendental theory. The Western origin of the concept of yuan poetry determines this, and Zhang Zao deeply understands: "Liang Zongdai also realized that Baudelaire's theory was in line with the European transcendental and metaphysical tradition of thought, but unfortunately he did not delve into this important topic." [23] Zhang zao went on to quote Paul Hoffman: "These ancient ideas are derived from mysticism and Neoplatonism. Nature hides a secret to be revealed by man, and the world of phenomena resembles transcendental intelligence. The netherworld — we — the world is rising and interlocking, and the next is a mirror image of the previous. This worldview permeated the entire Middle Ages up to the Renaissance. [24] This leads the question to the dualistic transcendentalism of the dimension of God and Man, or "personality God," while the Chinese cultural tradition has always emphasized inner transcendence. A poetic controversy can be seen in Western thought, and although Plato once dismissed the poet as an imitator, he also conceived of a "poet-creator"[25], and Plato eventually gave his natural philosophy a complete mythological form: in the Timaeus, Plato introduced "the concept of the demiruge, the concept of the soul of the world of good and evil, and the concept of the dual creation of the world". [26] Nietzsche reversed Plato's view: "Discursivein Telligence/Dianoia, inference and reason (Vernunft), are the double-veiled world creator or poet (demiurgico, poeticmaker). Even if we succeed in revealing our double occlusion identity, it still works with Nietzsche. [27] But Nietzsche was obsessed with the poet-creator identity, and in his poem he chanted, "The poet-creator's pain /Ah! Now I am your paver. [28] Meta-poetry also points to such a poet-creator image, thus relating to classical creation myths. In fact, the latter is one of the most hidden roots of the concept of Yuan poetry, and Zhang Zao consciously or unconsciously ignores this point due to his desire to integrate Chinese and Western or to promote Chinese sex.
It may be said that it is the idea of creation that unites the poet with God (the Creator) and enables the poet's status to rise infinitely, as Lovejoy puts it: "For western thought, as summarized in the doctrine of the chain of existence, tends to be in a growing emphasis on the idea of God as a never-ending creation, from which it can be inferred that man, as a moral subject or as an artist, will imitate God and create by making himself 'creative.'" [29] Curiously, however, similar ideas or romantic views are not uncommon in the history of new Chinese poetry, such as Guo Moruo's blatant declaration: "The world of mythology is produced from man's sensibility, not from man's intellect." The poets of primitive times, I deliberately use the word 'poet', before all natural phenomena, felt a variety of emotions, and each of these emotions was visualized and personified, so that inanimate nature became a living being. This figurative work is the expression of the poet's creative imagination, and the poet projects his own mental activity in the mirror of nature. Therefore, all the gods in the mythological world are born from the poet, that is, the supreme god 'God' believed by the religious, and in the final analysis, he is only the son of the poet. [30] Perhaps a more modest statement can be made, god is the brother of the poet, and the Taiwanese poet Zhou Mengdi has a poem entitled "Poetry and Creation", which is quoted as follows:
God is dead, Nietzsche asked:
Who is replaced by?
"Poet!"
The ghost of daffodils
Wilde said hurriedly.
Don't know whose brother it is?
God was born with the poet Ben a mother,
General hand eyes, general aura,
see! Who is more majestic and more modest
Who is happy to sit on whose right? [31]
Although Guo Moruo and Zhou Mengdi did not mention the yuanshi, their poetic concepts have this meaning, and at this time, the yuanshi means more of a creative ability, or what Guo Moruo calls "the expression of the poet's creative imagination". In the history of new poetry, the closest thing to Zhang Zao's yuan poetry discussion is actually Luo Yihe's poetic thought. Luo Yihe put forward the view of "language creation" in the context of "self-evident life" and "spiritual poetry", which also made Luo Yihe poetics show the color of yuan poetry:
The acquisition of self-evidentness of life in language, that is, the creation of language. The Upanishads say, "Thunder has no body, electricity has no body, fire has no body, wind has no body, and when it blows and bursts out, it has its body", in fact, the creation of poetic language, imagery, and so on, is the same. When there is no series of thought activities in artistic thinking as the driving force for pressure and modeling, the inherent word sign has no magic, and it must be placed in a certain context (this is the force of the insertion: life is self-evident), and its original magic will be manifested like a blessing incantation, becoming a narrative of light, in order to show its body, blowing and bursting out and having its body. The process of this narrative, in fact, with all our contemplation, all the spiritual activities that transcend the self, the pursuit of the beautiful gods, and the homesickness of mankind, is a synchronous process, not isolated from all this, and thought is not a cultivation outside the poetry. At what level of thought, writing essentially determines what kind of poetry is written, and this is the relationship between the spirit of poetry and art.
It should be pointed out that in this process, poetry is necessarily completed in the creation of language. The most important thing is not to follow the predetermined rules of art and use a certain artistic technique, but to make the whole spiritual world clear and purify. In the activity of writing a poem, the poetic first is the spirit itself. [32]
It should be noted that zhang zao seems to rely more on the constructive ability of modern language philosophy than Luo Yihe, and spiritual poetry and life self-evident are incorporated into the process of language creation. Luo Yihe insisted that language creation could not be stripped from spiritual poetry and life self-evident. To borrow aristotle's vocabulary, Zhang Zao pays more attention to the cause of form and purpose, while Luo Yihe pays more attention to the cause of material and the cause of motivation. Luo Yihe's poetry has romantic overtones, but also highlights the mythological dimension and romantic origin of Yuan poetry. In Zhang Zao's yuan poetry discourse, these characteristics are suppressed. This is not unrelated to the radical modernist principles that Zhang Zao promotes, but like all modernism, it also makes Zhang Zao more isolated in the complex cultural context of modern China. Zhang Zao was clearly aware of the possible isolation of Yuanshi discourse, and because of this, he tried to extract Yuanshi from all modern literature, including Lu Xun and Wen Yiduo, in order to dissolve the tension between Yuanshi and the mainstream narrative of various modernities, and even to elevate Yuanshi to the core of Chinese modernity narratives, or at least the only narrative about modernist poetry.
In Zhang Zao's meta-poem proposition, there is a creation proposition, and he does not hide the identity of the poet as a creator in his writing. For example, he notes in a commentary on the "post-obscure poet": "With the exquisite art of language, the lyrical subject has created for itself an identity: in the independent kingdom, the 'I' in the sense of meta-poetry as the creator of unique language and feeling denies the legitimacy of that experiential, oppressed 'me'. [33] However, both the concept of the author and the concept of creation have been devalued in our time, and although the concept of poetic creation was once even reminiscent of God's creation, the authority of the poet's image also depended on the image of the Creator, the image of God. The idea of creation must be seen in conjunction with the idea of language. The Gospel of John begins by saying, "In the beginning there was a Word, and the Word was with God, and God is the Word." [34] God did not create the world not only by language, but language played a great role, and God gave language to mankind to make him the primate of all things. [35] But in turn, the psalmist is helping God, and the psalmist is the namer, the second person after God. In our time, poets are dethroned gods. The poet was carrying out a constant and continuous command, and from the rational discourse of the Enlightenment, the poet also shared the right to scientific and rational naming, but gradually parted ways with it. Zhang Zao himself probably believed that the poet was the namer, although he would feel more of a gap. Some of his statements, such as "Words are not things, poetry must change itself and life"[36] and "first of all, it must live an interesting life",[37] is not only discussed in the postmodernist philosophy of language, but involves the relationship between poetry and creation.
The poet is the creator, which is the classical concept of mysticism; romanticism insists that the poet is the legislator; in modern times, the poet has become a transgressor, existing as a dangerous marginal element of society. It is precisely because of this that Zhang Zao has made the concept of Yuan poetry gain more meaning in linguistic poetics and formal poetics, and at the same time, thanks to the modern philosophy of language, the concept of Yuan poetry has further become mysterious and full of mystery. The admiration for the creation of poetry is only appropriate out of the modern academic way. Poetic wisdom in the sense of Vico must also be understood in a new way, and if Isaiah Berlin's understanding of Vico is true, "the man who makes or creates things can understand it, but the mere observer cannot"[38], and the right of interpretation is also a right of creation. In fact, the new poetry also created itself from the beginning, and the new poetry poet appeared as the creator of the world, re-establishing a new language order and world order. However, new poetic poets will also face poetic controversies. A patient in Chekhov's Sixth Ward suggests that small people do not have their own philosophy,[39] and how many Chinese poets and writers have their own philosophy? In Zhang Zao's blogology, we can see the Chinese version of the poetic and philosophical controversy. Zhang Zao noticed the view of language and reality opened by Mao Zedong, and at the same time quietly put his praise of the Yuan poetry poet on the other side.
The Romantic Style: Schlegel's Critical Writings
Translated by Li Bojie / Huaxia Publishing House / 2005
Schlegel
Three
Meta poetry: Beyond transcendental poetry and pure poetry
The Romantic origins of meta-poetry are reminiscent of transcendental poetry (Transzendentalpoesie), which was born out of German Romantic thought and is inextricably linked to the transcendental philosophy of the German contemporaneous period, as Friedrich Schlegel, inventor of the concept of transcendental poetry, put it:
There is a kind of poetry whose whole content is the relationship between ideal and reality, so according to the similarity of artistic language with philosophical charm, it seems that it must be called transcendental poetry. It begins as satire with the very different differences between ideal and reality, floats in the middle as a lament, and ends as an idyllic poem with the absolute identity of ideal and reality. Transcendental philosophy is critical, describing the creator at the same time as describing the work, and including in the system of transcendental thought the portrayal of transcendental thinking itself. There is no shortage of transcendental materials and the practice of the preparatory stage in the works of modern writers, as early as the works of Pinda, the fragments of lyric poetry of the Greeks, and the lamentations of the ancients, there is artistic reflection and self-reflection of beauty, and in modern people, this reflection and reflection exists in Goethe's works. If transcendental philosophy does not have the above characteristics, transcendental poetry does not need to combine the transcendental materials and pre-readings of modern writers with artistic reflection and self-reflection of beauty, combine them into poetic theories of creative ability, and express themselves at the same time in each of its manifestations, wherever they are poetry, and at the same time they are poetry poems. [40]
Transcendental poetry is quite consistent with the philosophical thought of the same period, that is, transcendental philosophy, that is, the interest in reflection, and the difference between the two is that transcendental poetry further develops reflection into irony, which is unacceptable to transcendental philosophy. [41] Transcendental poetry, however, did not fundamentally reject reflection, but rather fell somewhere between philosophy and poetry, becoming a kind of poetic or philosophical poetry with philosophical implications. Philosophers would also acknowledge "the logic of reflection and irony in 'poetry within poetry' or 'transcendental poetry'",[42] but a predominantly "absolute subjectivity of aesthetic revelation" occupies a dominant place in transcendental poetry. This absolute subjectivity also aspires to the philosophical all-encompassing universal truth, so that Schlegel can say, "Romantic poetry is a gradual sum of poems." [44] Zhang Zao's concept of meta-poetry also has a transcendental purpose, "breaking the cosmic silence that haunts mankind" and "transcending the words of the times to a level of ontological inquiry with the silence of man, creation, the world, and the universe". [v] As a "metaphysics of poetry", meta-poetry should belong to "reflective poetry",[45] which is quite related to the ontological philosophy that runs through Western thought, that is, the "great chain of existence". The same is evidently true of transcendental poetry.
However, like pure poetry, Yuanshi is often secretive about its romantic origins, although Zhang Zao also quotes Novalis in the text. Transcendental poetry can be said to be the romantic originator of yuan poetry, and pure poetry is a modernist close relative of yuan poetry. As Aalto said, "In Maramé there is a certain transcendental poetry and the ethics of the poem itself. [46] There is also a hidden connection between pure poetry and transcendental poetry. Closer to the concept of meta-poetry is pure poetry, although both can be traced back to transcendental poetry. Zhang Zao's discussion of Yuan poetry in his doctoral dissertation often refers to pure poetry, and even in many cases is based on the exposition of pure poetry discourse, especially the evaluation of Liang Zongdai, Feng Zhi and Bian Zhilin in chapters 4 and 5. Pure poetry is the core and essence of symbolism theory, the product of the highest stage of symbolism, and symbolism is also regarded as the highest stage of modernist writing. Meta poetry may be a poetic technique and method extracted from pure poetry. Meta-poetry, pure poetry, and transcendental poetry all emphasize the poet's creative capacity as God, and thus show a certain metaphysical desire, but there is a difference between meta-poetry and pure poetry: meta-poetry emphasizes more method, while pure poetry pays more attention to the consequences or consequences of poetry, especially in connection with the American poet Robert Warren's dialectic between pure poetry and impure poetry.[47] Compared with pure poetry, Yuanshi is more explanatory to modern Chinese poetry, and therefore has greater applicability, as Ya Siming, the translator of Zhang Zaobo's theory, said: "The reason why Zhang Zao abandoned the existing framework of 'pure poetry' and started to build the theory of 'yuanshi' is because he wanted to continue the exploration of Chinese modernists in the 1940s of the 20th century, starting from changing the structure of language to deal with real life, not only to avoid falling into the nihilistic dilemma of absolute poetry, but also to remain pure in the face of the penetration of power." [48] In this regard, meta-poetry itself constitutes an independent method of poetry, and even becomes a poetic genre. It should be added that the concepts of transcendental poetry, pure poetry, and meta poetry can actually correspond to the three periods of romanticism, modernism, and postmodernism in turn, and to some extent, yuan poetry and the so-called meta novel have been influenced by postmodernist thought, and the naming of yuan poetry may also be inspired by meta novels.
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camel
rice plant
target
poem
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discuss
"Open Field": The Contemporary Nature of Meta Poetry
There is a lot of tension in Zhang Zao's yuan poetry discourse, and this tension is actually the vitality of yuan poetry, and the possible contradictions in it even contain the contemporaneity of the concept of yuan poetry. The tension of yuan poetry exists between the dual concepts of tradition and modernity, East and West, Chinese and Spanish. It is generally believed that Zhang Zao is a poet who leans toward tradition, oriental temperament, and Chinese language. But this does not mean that Zhang Zao's concept of yuan poetry will therefore appear conservative or even have a kind of closure. He also paid enough attention to the other pole of the binary concept to require critics to be able to understand the meta-poetic concept dialectically.
Zhang Zao's design of the yuan poetry concept also tried to achieve a dialectical middle way, although sometimes his exposition would show certain contradictions, such as his earliest discussion of "word reduction" and "word expansion" proposed by Ouyang Jianghe. Zhang Zao used Bai Hua's poem as an example to say: "The 'abbreviation of words' is actually a willing and strategic limitation of the ability to speak, in order to be able to keep the language pure through self-isolation, but it is inevitable that it is monotonous and boring. Even against a silent backdrop, this singing is no longer shocking because of its synonymous repetition. The subjective 'I' rejects any empirical identity, because the 'I' creates a one-dimensional Mannerist sublime in a meta-poetic gesture—at least as one-dimensional as his opponent, who does not engage in self-reflection and is obsessed only with everyday experience. [50] Zhang Zao then used Ouyang Jianghe's poems as an example: "'Reality' or 'surreal' depends mainly on the attitude towards 'public topics', which is so wide that modern life can be described as all-encompassing, and has been written into poetry by 'expanding poetics'. The tension of words is formed between the social customs of the post-authoritarian era and the poetic potential of non-utilitarianism, which has never been in poetry before, but now produces new poetic meanings, at least temporary ones. [51] Zhang Zao was able to equate these two poetic claims and further understood them as the intrinsic tension of the yuan poetic concept. He wrote sympathetically and insightfully: "There is no doubt that neither expansion nor contraction can make poetry meet the needs of the times." Expansion or shrinkage? Methodological differences are anxious and force lyric poetry, in addition to preserving the art of words, to venture in an open and impossible direction, in order to overcome the crisis caused by ambiguous words by means of involuntary and ambiguous interpretations, in a self-contradictory way. [52] Zhang Zao also has a sympathetic understanding of the poetics of the 1990s: "The tendency of prose culture made many new poems of the 1990s flattened into a daily frame of photography. The ambition to keep poetry up to date with the unpredictable realities of today's China leaves behind the ancient poetic creed: poetry is no longer a magical and passionate moment in life, and the duty of language is to record reality as poetry. [53] Zhang further named the future of contemporary poetry an "era of such a desire for art and life, word and matter to join hands again", and regarded Hölderlin's "Das Offene" as "the basic position of contemporary Chinese new poetry". [54] This position fully demonstrates the openness of Zhang Zaoyuan's concept of poetry.
It can be added that the concepts of "word abbreviation" and "word expansion" are also used by Zhang Zao to describe "post-obscure poetry" and "obscure poetry" respectively. Zhang Zao sees the transformation of contemporary poetry from obscure poetry to post-obscure poetry as "a process of change from content rebellion to language rebellion", and he tries to dissolve the tension between the two, especially the transgression of post-obscure poetry to obscure poetry. Zhang Zao said of Kitajima: "Kitajima defines language as a meta-language, that is, a poetic language, and although it originates from the 'language of the world', its ability to self-reflect is higher than the latter; the subject of experience, and at the same time the language-based subject in the sense of meta-poetry, always tries to transform the ineffable state of existence into the state of the poetry that can be said. [55] It can be seen that Zhang Zaoli tried to unify the obscure poetry with the post-obscure poetry in the sense of yuan poetry, so as to enhance the interpretation of the concept of yuan poetry for contemporary Chinese poetry. Zhang Zao's criticism of post-obscure poetry also follows this line of thought, and his division of "intellectual poets" and "life poets" is reminiscent of the "intellectual poets" and "folk poets" who attacked each other in the poetry field in the 1990s, but Zhang Zao still tried to overcome the split with yuan poetry: "Xichuan, Bai hua and Lu Yimin all belong to the so-called 'intellectual poets', who are good at quoting scriptures and intertext dialogue, and dissolve reality through the reinforcement of inner intelligence; the opposite is the 'life poet', facing the daily life' Non-poetic', expanding the vocabulary to point to reality. Ultimately, however, their motivation for constructing the text is no different from that of the 'intellectual poet': the self-discipline of language, the fact that poetry is written as a word that cannot be deceived. They also wrote a lot of 'travel poems', which can be understood as real play and as a meta-poetry journey in the language landscape. [56] In the 1990s, poetry was often seen as the development and continuation of post-obscure poetry, and Zhang Zao's observation could not help but be profound: "Most poets believe that the more words are spoken, the longer the poem is written, the longer it is written, it is a reasonable response to the continuous expansion of language and themes, in response to the diffuse sexual life of great material abundance. In this sense, they find that the concise 'lyrical purity' they had previously pursued was somewhat anachronistic. They want to deliberately write some 'impure poems', but they need the courage to face reality more than ever. [57] It is clear that in Zhang Zao's view, this change can be understood in the dialectical relationship between pure poetry and impure poetry (or even non-poetry); and if it goes further, contemporary Chinese poetry as yuan poetry can also pursue the "progressive summation poem" of transcendental poetry.
It is undeniable that Zhang Zao's yuan poetry exposition sometimes presents a negative defensive posture, such as when discussing Liang Zongdai: "The most important significance of Liang Zongdai's poetics is to lay out a position that is both oriented to the world and respects tradition, free from the manipulation of all ideologies and political discourses, and let literature return to aesthetics, which in his view is also the significance of the New Poetry Movement, and should be regarded as the most important symbol of the new cultural achievements of May Fourth." [58] However, in his discussion of Feng Zhi, the yuan poems clearly have a positive growth: "Feng Zhi adopted a rejection of the narcissism of the Rilke style of yuan poems, and he stimulated his imagination by truly participating in the world. [59] In this sense, Zhang Zao's emphasis on the Chinese language and classical Chinese poetics also had a lifting effect on Yuan poetry, moving the latter away from the purity of pure poetry and closer to the universality of transcendental poetry, that is, the all-encompassing effort. In fact, the contemporaneity of yuan poetry is also implied in the possible contradictions of yuan poetry discourse. However, in addition to classical Chinese poetics, the tension between yuan poetry and the established view of reality (and language view) comes more from the language theory and language philosophy itself in modern Western literature, which is precisely to release the vitality of language, which naturally includes the reinterpretation and shaping of reality by language. In this sense, the philosophy of language since the 20th century can continue to provide theoretical insights into meta-poetry. Benjamin spoke of the fall of human language, which is related to the fall of man himself, which also takes place in Genesis, but after which mankind is confronted with a world in which good and evil are difficult to distinguish. [60] The poet's duty, then, in addition to the constant naming, may also be to distinguish between good and evil in life. Naming and distinguishing between good and evil mean shaping reality. Wittgenstein's statement in The Philosophy of Logic about the difference between the spoken and the unspeakable, about "ethics and aesthetics are the same thing"[61] is in fact an Occam razor wielding language, viewing the moral and aesthetic values pursued by human beings as a linguistic expression or even fiction, as he said, "If the will of good or the will of evil can change the world, then it can only change the boundaries of the world, not the facts, that is, what can be expressed in words." [62] In the sense of distinguishing between good and evil, meta-poetry can enter the depiction of contemporary life and thus into history. On the other hand, to make yuan poetry problematic rather than closed or self-solidifying is to reconsider the relationship between poetry and creation, and to expect the poet to become a benign creator, whether it is the order of language or the order of the living world, so that it is to penetrate into the construction of modern Chinese culture in the way of poetry and philosophy. The charm or glory of pure poetry has faded away from contemporary poetry, but yuan poetry as a method still brings enlightenment. Due to the attention paid to the act of poetry writing itself and its spiritual power, Yuanshi has become one of the most core concepts in the field of new poetry writing and research, condensing the continuous inquiry of modern Chinese poetry about "what is a poet" and poeticity.
Century / Jiangsu People's Publishing House / 2019
Wang Dongdong
Notes
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[1] Zhang Zao, The Quest for Modernity: On New Chinese Poetry Since 1919, translated by Ya Siming, Sichuan Literature and Art Publishing House, 2020.
[2] Zhang Zao, "Dangerous Travel Towards the Landscape of Language: The Meta-Poetic Structure and Writer's Posture of Contemporary Chinese Poetry", edited by Yan Lianjun: Selected Essays of Zhang Zao, People's Literature Publishing House, 2012 edition, p. 174.
[3] Zhang Zao, "Dangerous Travel Towards the Landscape of Language: The Meta-Poetic Structure and Writer's Posture of Contemporary Chinese Poetry", in Selected Essays of Zhang Zao, edited by Yan Lianjun, People's Literature Publishing House, 2012 edition, p. 183.
[4] Zhang Zao, "Lu Xun: 'Weeds' and The Discourse of Language and Life Dilemmas" (Part 1), translated by Ya Siming, Yangtze River Review, No. 6, 2018.
[5] Yu Jian, "Brown Skin Notes: Rejection Metaphor: A Poetry as a Method", Rejection Metaphor, Yunnan People's Publishing House, 2004, p. 126.
[6] Yu Jian, "Brown Leather Notes: Rejection Metaphor: A Poetry as a Method", Rejection Metaphor, Yunnan People's Publishing House, 2004, p. 126.
[7] Yu Jian, "Brown Leather Notes: Rejection Metaphor: A Poetry as a Method", Rejection Metaphor, Yunnan People's Publishing House, 2004, p. 126.
[8] Zhang Zao, "Lu Xun: 'Weeds' and The Discourse of Language and Life Dilemmas" (Part 1), translated by Ya Siming, Yangtze River Review, No. 6, 2018.
[9] [de] Heidegger, On the Way to Language, translated by Sun Zhouxing, The Commercial Press, 2015, p. 254.
[10] Zhang Zao, The Quest for Modernity: On New Chinese Poetry Since 1919, translated by Ya Siming, Sichuan Literature and Art Publishing House, 2020, p. 25.
[11] Zhang Zao, The Quest for Modernity: On New Chinese Poetry Since 1919, translated by Ya Siming, Sichuan Literature and Art Publishing House, 2020, pp. 37-38.
[12] Zhang Zao, "Lu Xun: 'Weeds' and The Discourse of Language and Life Dilemmas" (Part 1), translated by Ya Siming, Yangtze River Review, No. 6, 2018.
[13] Hugo Friedrich, The Structure of Modern Poetry: Lyric Poems from the Mid-19th to the Mid-20th Century, translated by Li Shuangzhi, 2010 edition of Yilin Publishing House.
[14] Michael Hamburger,The Truth of Poetry:tension in modern poetry from Baudelaire to the 1960s,London:Methuen, 1982.
[15] See Jameson: Total Poetics, edited by Wang Fengzhen, On Modernist Literature (vol. 5), translated by Su Zhongle, Chen Guangxing, and Wang Fengzhen, Chinese Min University Press, 2015, pp. 25-26.
[16] Zhang Zao, "Dangerous Travel Towards The Landscape of Language: The Structure of Yuan Poetry and the Writer's Posture of Contemporary Chinese Poetry", in Selected Essays of Zhang Zao, edited by Yan Lianjun, People's Literature Publishing House, 2012 edition, p. 172.
[17] Song Lin, "The Name of the Spirit: On Zhang Zao", Contemporary Writers Review, No. 1, 2011.
[18] [de] Heidegger, On the Way to Language, translated by Sun Zhouxing, Commercial Press, 2004, p. 269.
[19] [20] [21] [22] [23] Zhang Zao, "Liang Zongdai and symbolist poetics", translated by Ya Siming, Academic Monthly, No. 1, 2019.
[24] Reprinted from Zhang Zao: Liang Zongdai and symbolist poetics, translated by Ya Siming, Academic Monthly, No. 1, 2019.
[25] See Meng Ming, Nietzsche and the Poetry of Thought, Nietzsche, Ode to Dionysus, translated by Meng Ming, East China Normal University Press, 2013, p. 55.
[26] Ernst Casirer: The Myth of the State, translated by Fan Jin, Yang Junyou, and Ke Jinhua, Huaxia Publishing House, 2015, p. 84.
[27] Rosen, "Commentary on Nietzsche's Platonism", "The Struggle Between Poetry and Philosophy: From Plato to Nietzsche and Heidegger", translated by Zhang Hui, Huaxia Publishing House, 2004, p. 197.
[28] [de] Nietzsche: Selected Manuscripts of Nietzsche, translated by Yu Longfa, Shanghai Translation Publishing House, 2011, p. 90.
[29] [American] Arthur M. O. Lovejoy: The Great Chain of Existence, translated by Zhang Chuanyou and Gao Bingjiang, The Commercial Press, 2015, pp. 399-400.
[30] Guo Moruo, "The World of Myths," Creation Weekly, No. 27, November 1923.
[31] Zhou Mengdi, Dating, Contemporary World Press, 2015, p. 6.
[32] Luo Yihe: "Beauty God", Edited by Zhang Jiu: The Complete Poems of Luo Yihe, Sanlian Bookstore, 1997 edition, p. 844.
[33] Zhang Zao, "On "Post-Obscure Poetry"", translated by Ya Siming, Literary Review, No. 6, 2019.
[34] The Bible, Christian Council of China, 2009, p. 104.
[35] [de] Walter Benjamin, On The Primitive Language and the Language of Man, Writing and Redemption: Selected Writings of Benjamin, translated by Li Maozeng and Su Zhongle, Oriental Publishing Center, 2017 edition, pp. 3-19.
[36] Zhang Zao, "Dangerous Travel Towards The Landscape of Language: The Structure of Yuan Poetry and the Writer's Posture of Contemporary Chinese Poetry", in Selected Essays of Zhang Zao, edited by Yan Lianjun, People's Literature Publishing House, 2012 edition, p. 191.
[37] Zhang Zao, "Dialogue with Tsvetaeva", Letters from Spring and Autumn, People's Literature Publishing House, 2017, p. 160.
[38] Isaiah Berlin, Three Critics of enlightenment, translated by Ma Yindi and Zheng Xiang, Translated by Yilin Publishing House, 2014, p. 9.
[39] [Russian] Anton Baplovich Chekhov: "The Sixth Ward", Selected By Dong Xiao: Selected Short Stories of Chekhov, translated by Zhu Xiansheng, Feng Jia, et al., People's Education Publishing House, 2019 edition, p. 116.
[40] [de] Schlegel: The Collection of Fragments, Romantic Style: Schlegel's Critical Essays, translated by Li Bojie, Huaxia Publishing House, 2005, pp. 81-82.
[41] See [de] Klaus Faivik, "Romantic Irony as Aesthetic Skepticism: On Hegel's Critique of the "Transcendental Poetry" Project," Hegel's Philosophy of Art, translated by Xu Xianliang et al., The Commercial Press, 2018, pp. 77-104.
[42] [f] Philippe Laku-Labalte and Jean-Luc Nancy, The Art of the Nameless, The Absolute of Literature: The Theory of German Romantic Literature, translated by Zhang Xiaolu, Li Bojie, and Li Shuangzhi, Translated by Yilin Publishing House, 2012, p. 232.
[43] [de] Klaus Faivik, "Romantic Irony as Aesthetic Skepticism: On Hegel's Critique of the "Transcendental Poetry" Project," Hegel's Philosophy of Art, translated by Xu Xianliang et al., The Commercial Press, 2018, p. 99.
[44] See [de] Schlegel: The Fragmentary Collection, The Romantic Style: Schlegel's Critical Anthology, translated by Li Bojie, Huaxia Publishing House, 2005, p. 71. "Sum poem" can also be translated as "total poem" or "universal poem".
[45] Zhang Zao, "On "Post-Obscure Poetry"", translated by Yasming, Literary Review, No. 6, 2019.
[46] [American] Arthur M. O. Lovejoy: The Existence of a Giant Chain, translated by Zhang Chuanyou and Gao Bingjiang, translated by Deng Xiaomang and Zhang Chuanyou, Commercial Press, 2015 edition, p. 1.
[47] Reprinted from Julia Christeva, Semiotics: An Exploration of Fu Yi Analysis, translated by Shi Zhongyi et al., Fudan University Press, 2015, p. 276.
[48] Robert Payne Warren, Poems of Purity and Impurity, translated by Yang Yanan, in Hu Jingzhi and Zhang, eds., Selected Essays on the Twentieth Century in the West (Vol. 2), China Social Sciences Press, 1989, pp. 226-250.
[49] Ya Siming, "The Quest for Modernity:Poetics of Zhang Zao with lyrical "I" in the Sense of "Yuan Poetry" as the Core," Contemporary Writers Review, No. 3, 2020.
[50] [51] [52] [53] [54] [55] [56] [57] Zhang Zao, The Quest for Modernity: On New Chinese Poetry Since 1919, translated by Ya Siming, Sichuan Literature and Art Publishing House, 2020, pp. 331, 334, 336, 335-336, 336, 253, 322, 329.
[58] Zhang Zao, "Liang Zongdai and symbolist poetics", translated by Ya Siming, Academic Monthly, No. 1, 2019.
[59] Zhang Zao, The Quest for Modernity: On New Chinese Poetry Since 1919, translated by Ya Siming, Sichuan Literature and Art Publishing House, 2020, pp. 37-38.
[60] [de] Walter Benjamin, On The Primitive Language and the Language of Man, Writing and Redemption: Selected Writings of Benjamin, translated by Li Maozeng and Su Zhongle, Oriental Publishing Center, 2017 edition, pp. 3-19.
[61] [62] Wittgenstein: On the Philosophy of Logic, translated by He Shaojia, The Commercial Press, 2017, p. 102.
This paper is the phased result of the National Social Science Post-funded Project "Research on social care and artistic issues of contemporary Chinese poetry" (project number: 19FZWB027).
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