After the Age of Discovery, the Enlightenment, and the Industrial Revolution, mankind ushered in the great changes of the millennium, and all regions of the world began to enter the era of industrial civilization from agricultural civilization. This is one of the biggest changes since the birth of mankind, no less than the transformation from a matrilineal clan society to a patrilineal clan society.
This change began in the 17th century and continues to the present day. The various drastic changes brought about by the great changes are really profound, especially the artists and writers, who are the most sensitive group of people in the changes of the times. Artists, such as painters, will use their brushes to depict the changes of the times, and writers will use their pens to record all these changes.
Among them, the 19th century was the most intense period of changes in the world, Britain, the United States, France, Russia, Germany, etc. began a vigorous change, this violent shock is reflected in literature is the rise of critical realist literature.
There are two lines in critical realist literature: one is a critique of the old aristocracy; the other is a critique of industrialization, urbanization, and modernization. The critique of the old aristocracy is mainly a criticism of the old order, the old rule, the old society, the criticism of their increasingly decaying rule, the corrupt, luxurious life.
The criticism of the old aristocracy is mainly in England, Russia, and France, because the feudal old aristocracy in these countries is very strong. The United States was only discovered in the Age of Discovery, which is equivalent to directly from the slave society to the new rich bourgeois rule society, so there is basically no old aristocracy in the United States, slave owners do have, but after the victory of the Civil War in 1865, the slave-owning aristocracy in the South has no power.
Therefore, American critical realist literary authors mainly focus on the criticism of industrialization, urbanization, modernization, and the newly affluent bourgeoisie, with nine main themes:
A critique of the American Dream
The illusory American Dream, mainly focused on Mark Twain, Theodore Dreiser, Vera Kaiser, Jack London, Fitzgerald, Arthur Miller, etc. Let's take Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby as an example.
The protagonist, Gatsby, is entirely a man who struggles from the lowest level of society by personal effort. He came from a humble background and had a hard life, but he was tenacious, brave and tenacious, and finally achieved great economic success and entered the upper echelons of society with his hard work. This story of a poor boy in rags and penniless clothes who changed his status and destiny with unremitting struggle was that in the 19th century, there were many processes of industrialization, urbanization, and modernization in the United States, and the newly wealthy bourgeoisie were all.
However, with the continuous development of the economy and society, after the completion of the first generation of wealth accumulation, all areas of society have become saturated, competition has intensified, and opportunities have become less and less. A person's social status and affluence begin to be determined by their family origin. At this time, it is almost an impossible dream to climb from the lower class of society to the upper class.
Gatsby's death marked the disillusionment of the "American Dream" of that year.
Second, the widening gap between the rich and the poor, the extravagant life of the upper class, and the show off wealth of the newly rich bourgeoisie
Representatives of this are O Henry, Edith Wharton, Fitzgerald, Mark Twain, and such works as O Henry. Let's take O Henry's The Gift of Maggie as an example.
The book tells the story of a poor couple who give gifts, because of the economic downturn, they have difficulty in obtaining a stable income job in society, but they do not hinder their expression of love because of the lack of materials.
On the eve of Christmas, they decided to donate what was most precious to buy each other a gift. The hero of the story sells his ancestral watch to buy a very delicate comb for his beloved woman, because his lover has an enviable long blond hair.
However, unexpectedly, when the hero brings the comb to his lover, he finds that her proud long blonde hair is no longer there. It turns out that the heroine of the story has sold her long hair to a barbershop and then used the money to buy a watch chain for her beloved man. The last two men hugged and wept at the christmas bells.
From the article "Maggie's Gift", we can deeply feel the hardships of the people at the bottom of society.
Third, the critique of money ideology, materialistic desire, money worship, money supremacy, and mercenary interests
Representatives in this regard include Mark Twain, Henry James, John Steinbeck, E.L. Dockturo, Henry David Thoreau, Saul Bellow and many others. Let's take Mark Twain's Million Pounds as an example.
"Million Pound Sterling" is one of Mark Twain's major works. The story takes place in Britain in the early 20th century, when a pair of wealthy brothers bet on a million pounds worth of cash to see if the bill will bring endless wealth or just a worthless "small piece of paper".
Henry Adams, a poor boy in the United States, came to London because he was out to sea and lost his way, and just when he was hungry and struggling to make a living, he met these two wealthy brothers, and incredibly: the brothers gave him a million pound bills, which was both a huge surprise for Henry, but also a huge "trap" - they used it to bet.
The rich brothers gave Adam million bills and agreed with him that for a month, Adam could use them at will. But after a month he had to return the money to the rich as it was, so that he could get whatever job the rich offered him. Adam accepted the agreement in a daze.
In the past, no matter how Adam went to eat or buy clothes, he would be blinded by people because of his ragged clothes. But when he took out the banknote, not only did the people give him a lot of courtesy, but even the associated fees could be reduced, because they saw Adam as a rich man, and no one could make change for a million-denomination banknote. After that, Henry's life underwent earth-shaking changes, his social status soared rapidly, countless people were flattered and co-opted, and his living environment was superior and luxurious. Finally, his position in society was constantly elevated, all the way up to the highest duke outside the royal family!
Not only that, but he also got a beautiful wife and thirty thousand pounds of bank interest, and got a good job from his two brothers and lived a happy life.
In this story, Mark Twain uses the irony and comedy he has always been good at to portray the ugliness of 19th-century American society that took money and put money first.
Fourth, utilitarianism, survival of the fittest, the weak eat the strong, the survival of the fittest
This was represented by Upton Sinclair, Jack Kerouac and Arthur Miller. Let's take Arthur Miller's The Death of a Salesman as an example.
The story's protagonist, Willie Lohman, lives in America in the 1940s as an era of involution. In the era of involution, social resources are limited and competition is extremely cruel, and the values of American utilitarianism, pragmatism, and survival of the fittest have exacerbated this fierce competition.
The law of the jungle, the free competition in the market economy, the brutal struggle of people for survival, and the fierce social competition make people crazy. At the same time, interpersonal relationships have become very tense, there is a lack of trust between people, a lack of positive energy, and human feelings have become quite indifferent.
The whole society is anxious from top to bottom, insecurity is increasing, and social trust is reduced to a minimum. All uncertainties and unfamiliarities can trigger anxiety and deep fear. Everyone wants to keep their vested interests and even want to live a better life, and the more economic downturn there is, the stronger people's desire to join the upper class. No one wants to go back into poverty, no one wants to be squeezed out of the class, they are afraid and afraid, once they are squeezed out, they will not know how to face it.
63-year-old Willie Lohman pursued all his life, but in the end he still achieved nothing, unemployed in his old age, his son was not a tool, and his income did not know where? Debt-ridden, competitive society, a dazed future, shattered dreams, etc., crushed his old body and mind, and in the end he chose to end his life.
At the last moment of his life, he also thought that his death would enable his family to receive an insurance payment. sigh! After reading it, people really don't know what to say.
Fifth, technological alienation, technical rational criticism
Representatives of this are Thomas Pynchon and Don Derrillo. Let's take Don Derrillo's White Noise as an example.
White Noise is a typical work of Don Derrillo's thought. In this novel, he shows us a modern society in which consumerism is prevalent and science and technology are developed.
In this new society, traditional values are deconstructed, God is dead, religious beliefs cannot bring comfort to people, and people have to turn to filling the inner void through material consumption, money, pleasure, etc. At the same time, people have to face the fear of death that comes at any time. Because of ecological destruction, environmental pollution, frequent occurrence of catastrophic natural disasters, terrorist activities, industrial production safety accidents, etc., human life can be deprived at any time. In this novel, Don Derrillo reveals the modern technology, consumer culture, media culture and ecological disasters of contemporary society through the daily life of postmodern society in the United States and the disasters brought about by postmodern industrialization to the environment, showing the author's criticism of postmodern industrial disasters, media culture, consumer consciousness, etc. and a strong sense of crisis.
Sixth, consumer alienation, consumerism
Representatives of this are John Updike, Saul Bellow and Don Derrillo. Let's take Saul Bellow's Don't Lose Your Day as an example.
The protagonist of "Don't Lose Your Day" is Wilm, a middle-aged man in his forties who has achieved nothing, and his divorced wife Margaret constantly asks him for living expenses. Unable to do so, he had to ask his father for money. His father, Adler, was a retired old professor with a considerable fortune in his hands. But father and son have not been in harmony since childhood.
Wilm began to run away from home at a very young age, and before he finished college, he came out to run around and wanted to be a movie star, but he did not succeed. He later worked as a salesman for 10 years and was fired. In the eyes of his father, Adler, he could not tolerate his son, who was in his forties, idle, and still in debt, begging him for living expenses. So he refused his son Wilm's request.
In fact, Adler's difficulty in trying to help his son Wilm is simple, his property is enough, and the only thing that can't get over is his heart corrupted by money. He believes that his money is his hard work, hard work, hard work, do not miss an opportunity, earn back. He knows the power of money, and with it, there is everything, without which he will live on the streets. He didn't expect a failed son to raise him, only money. In his late years, he can believe in money, not father-son affection.
His father's indifference made Wilm grumble, and he wanted to be angry, but he didn't know who to be angry with. He hated this world of flowers and flowers, and he saw that the richer the people, the more they worshiped money, the more they felt that money was sacred and charming, and they were indifferent to everything except money! It is money that makes them "fatherless and sonless."
Wilm fell into the abyss of troubles and depression, and had to find another way to make a living to raise his long-term wife and children. He arrives at the casino and meets Dr. Tamorkin, a pompous psychiatrist. Under Tamorkin's rhetoric, Wilm believed in him, regarded him as a confidant, and gave him the only seven hundred dollars he had to do business, full of speculation to make money, but the money was cheated away.
At the end of the novel, Wilm cries at the coffin of an unrelated and strange deceased. Perhaps, he suddenly felt that he was middle-aged, and the most shining years of his life had passed. And the future is even more slim, full of thorns, all opportunities will be blocked, and the vagueness and any uncertainty and suddenness will beat an already emaciated middle-aged man even more to the skin.
Seventh, the critique of daily life, the fragmentation of urban life
Representatives of this are John Updike and Salinger. John Updike's "Rabbit, Run", "Rabbit Returns", "Rabbit Rich", "Rabbit Rest" completely reproduces the dilemma of modernity.
The widening gap between the rich and the poor, the solidification of classes, and the growth of the number of middle classes have made society more and more stable, and a stable social structure has made everyone's life more and more stable. People began to be satisfied with the mediocre status quo of life, paying attention to material possession, and the concept of family prevailed, as if a person could only be regarded as successful if he established a family, got married and had children.
People are increasingly dissatisfied with the mediocrity and tedium of married life, feeling empty, confused and afraid of their own lives, they are not willing to sink, but they can't find a way out. Money cannot fill the void of a spiritual crisis. A strong desire to pursue oneself, but also a sense of lack of faith, the absurdity of life, and the meaninglessness of life, makes one feel at a loss in a duckweed-like society. People who are at a loss are forced to rely on consumption, material pleasures, and sensual desires.
Eighth, the atomization of society, the atomization of individuals, the indifference, coldness, and ruthlessness of interpersonal relations
Representatives of this are Joseph Heller and Carson McCullers.
Carson McCullers' life was short, and it was a short fifty years, and she was still suffering from illness. A series of diseases severely devastated her body, so her works are mostly about lonely people, and the themes of loneliness, isolation and alienation run through all her works.
During the Great Depression, the Great Depression dealt a heavy blow to the always optimistic and confident Americans, and pessimistic and desperate decadence pervaded all corners of American society. Marriage rates have fallen dramatically, birth rates have reached historic lows, and suicide rates have risen. Soon, ordinary people began to worry that the entire political economy might collapse, people suddenly lost confidence in the future, faced a deep existential crisis, and felt great loneliness, depression and fear.
The survival anxiety, hypocrisy, and conspicuous consumption of the middle class
Representatives of this are John Cheever and Sinclair Lewis. The middle class is the class with the most anxiety about survival and status panic. Arguably, no class has been so troubled by the unemployment crisis as the middle class.
The middle class, on the one hand, wants to have more money and higher status, but on the other hand has to rely on its employers, which creates a heavy mental burden, and fills their appearance of wealth and decency with inexhaustible status panic and existential anxiety.
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