Ancient food crops were the so-called five grains, six grains and hundred grains. According to the general saying, the five grains are millet (jì), 黍 (shǔ), wheat, shū (shū), hemp; the six grains are rice, millet, millet, wheat, 菽, hemp. There is only one more kind of rice than five grains, apparently because rice was originally a crop in the south and later spread to the north. (There are other sayings about wugu, such as "Mencius Teng Wen Gongshang": "Tree Art Five Grains", Zhao Qi's note: "Five grains are rice and millet.") "Liugu also has other sayings, which are not listed here. As for the hundred grains, it is not that there were so many grain varieties in ancient times, but the meaning of a variety of grains.
Millet is millet, also known as millet. (Some people say that millet and millet are one and the same kind, the grain of millet is yellow and sticky; the grain of millet is white and not sticky.) Millet was the most important grain for a long time in ancient times. The ancients used Ji to represent Ceres, and the god of society (earth god) was collectively called Sheji, and used Sheji as a synonym for the country. This shows the importance of millet in ancient times.
It is what the modern North calls it, also known as yellow rice. In the Book of Poetry, it is common to call it 黍稷連, which shows that it was also very important in ancient times. In ancient times, it was considered to be a relatively delicious grain, so the Analects of the Analects of The Micron said: "Kill the chicken for the sake of eating it." ”
Wheat is divided into barley wheat. The ancient barley was called (móu), also known as Laimu.
A pine is a bean. In ancient times, it was only called Shu, and after the Han Dynasty, it was called bean.
Hemp refers to hemp seeds, which were also eaten in ancient times, and there are also people who eat hemp porridge in later generations. "Poetry Sutra · Bīn) Wind • July" "September Shu Tho (jū)", Tho is Mazi. Hemp is not the main food crop, and in ancient times, silk hemp or mulberry hemp was called, which refers to the fiber of hemp.
Now let's talk about the grain millet.
Valley is the general name for Hundred Valleys. Originally, it referred specifically to millet, but gradually became a general term for general food crops. Millet was originally the grain of grass millet, and later also used as a generic name for grain. Sorghum is a good seed of millet. The ancients often called rice sorghum and thought that these two grains were delicious; and they were also called sorghum or sorghum meat, which was considered to be a fine diet.
The grain is fried into dry grain called qiǔ (糗), also known as 糇 (hóu) grain. Shijing Daya Gongliu: "Nǎi wraps grain. The word grain itself also refers to dry food, which is eaten only when marching or traveling. Therefore, "Zhuangzi Getaway" says: "Those who are suitable for thousands of miles, gather grain in March." ”
The ancients used cattle and sheep as three animals. During the sacrifice, the three animals are called too fast; only sheep and not cattle are called less prisons. Cattle are the most precious, only the ruling class can afford to eat, the more common meat is lamb, so the word beauty (delicious) shame (bun) and so on from the sheep, soup (gēng) word from the lamb from the beauty. The ancients also ate dog meat, and there were dogs slaughtering as a profession, han Dynasty fan (kuài) that is, "slaughtering dogs for the sake of things". The Book of Han and the Biography of Fan Duo (樊哙傳) Yan Shigu notes: "When people eat dogs, they are also the same as sheep, so they slaughter and sell." "It can be seen that the Tang people no longer eat dogs."
Ancient dried meat is called fǔ , xiū ( ) , and meat sauce is called hǎi. Originally, there were many kinds of sauces: in addition to tǎn (meat sauce), there were also fish sauce, mirage (shèn) (clam sauce) and so on. However, the so-called so-called sauce refers to the meat sauce. In ancient times, vinegar was called 醯 (xī). With the mash, it can be made into sauerkraut and kimchi, called zū (葅). The finely cut melon vegetables are called jī (齏). Cured meat and marinated fish are also called zū (菹), so there are deer, fish and so on. In this sense, pine is similar to pine.
In addition to dried meat (preserved meat) and meat sauce (pickle), ancient times also ate soup. It is said that there are two kinds of soup, one is pure gravy that is out of tune with the five flavors and vegetables, which is drunk. "Zuo Chuan Huan Gong 2nd Year": "The big soup is not caused, the cí food is not chiseled, and the thriftiness is also shown." The so-called "big (too) soup" is this kind of soup. The other is meat soup, which is put into a cooker and cooked with five flavors. The so-called five flavors are said to be pickles, pickles, salt, plums and a dish. This dish can be aoi, it can be an onion, it can be a leek. Another says that beef soup is made of herbs, yokan is made of bitter (bitter vegetables), and soup is made of weed. Shang Shu Shu Shu Shu "It can be seen that saltiness and acid are the main taste of the soup. Mencius's so-called "one dān food, one bean soup" is probably this kind of soup. The "Zuo Chuan Yin A.D. Year" records that Zheng Zhuang gave Yingkao Uncle food, and Yingkao Uncle "ate the meat of the house." Ask. Right: 'The little man has a mother, and he tastes the food of the little man, but he has not tasted the soup of the king.' Please leave it behind. "Probably this kind of meat soup."
Ancient poultry included chickens, geese, and ducks. Geese are also called geese (there are wild geese, there are Shu geese, Shu geese are geese). The duck character is a later word, called 鹜 (wù) in the Warring States period, so the Chu Ci Buju says: "Will you compete with the chicken bird for food?" "The duck is also called fú, which is distinguished from the wild duck.
The sugar eaten by the ancients was only maltose and the like, called yí.) Glutinous rice flour (馓) can be boiled into a glutton (xíng). Gluttony is soft, gluttony is hard. 餳 is an ancient sugar character (餳, 古音唐). But the sugar at that time was not the sand sugar of the descendants. Sand sugar (sugar cane sugar) is not old in the Central Plains. White sand sugar is called stone honey, which is also a foreign tribute. The bread or gluttony that most people eat is maltose. Song Qi's "Cold Food" poem "Whistle Blowing Warm sells the sky", selling maltose.
The ancients knew about winemaking for a long time. Yin ren good wine is famous, and the number of wine vessels such as gū (觚) knights unearthed can indicate the prosperity of drinking at that time. However, in ancient times, the so-called wine was generally made of koji (boiled yellow), plus koji (niè) (wine mother), not shochu. Shochu is a latecomer.
Tea is one of the main specialties of the mainland. Erya Shimu: "槚 (jiǎ), bitter (tú). "Tea is the same word. But there is no ancient record of tea drinking. Wang Zhen's "Covenant of Servants" mentions "cooking tea" and "buying tea", which shows that tea was not only a drink in some areas of the Han Dynasty, but also a commodity. According to the Biography of The Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Wu Zhi Wei Yao (yào), Sun Hao secretly gave Wei Yao tea chuǎn as a wine (Wei Yao was Wei Zhao, and Shi was changed to avoid Emperor Wen of Jin. Guo's note in "Erya": "This morning picker is a di, and the late taker is a tea, a tsunchon." "), "Continuing Museum Chronicle" said that the southern people are good at drinking tea, and probably the custom of tea drinking spread from Jiangnan. During the Southern and Northern Dynasties, tea drinking became more and more popular. After the Tang and Song dynasties, tea became the drink of ordinary literati.
Ancient Han Chinese did not eat dairy drinks and food. "Chronicle of the Xiongnu": "All the food of the Han Dynasty is gone, so as to show that it is not as good as the convenience of the dòng cheese." "Huang is cow's milk; there are two kinds of cheese, dry and wet, cheese is what is called cheese today, and wet cheese is probably yogurt." According to the "History", eating cheese is not a habit of the Han people. Ghee was called crisp in ancient times, and it was originally also the food of the Hu people, so Tang Xuanzong mocked An Lushan and said, "You can laugh at Hu'er but you know crisp." "Tí hú is a fine cheese, and according to the Nirvana Sutra, cow's milk becomes cheese, butter becomes raw pastry, raw crisp mature crisp, cooked puff pastry becomes Daigo, and Daigo is the highest quality. All this proves that the habit of eating and drinking milk came from ethnic minorities. Han Yu's poem "Light Rain in Early Spring", "The light rain on the streets of Heaven is as moist as crisp", which shows that the Han people in the Tang Dynasty have gradually become accustomed to crispy cheese.
12-1 Taocang Western Han Dynasty Height about 43 cm In 1953, the Tomb of The Han Tomb of Luoyang Yaogou was excavated
The names of the valleys written in cinnabar on the pottery barn are shǔ rice, sorghum (liáng) rice, millet (sù) wanshi, ma wanshi, and rice seed wanshi.
Stone, as the unit of measurement of the Western Han Dynasty, its own problem is very complicated. There are still huge disagreements and debates in the academic community over many details.
Stone, as a unit of weight or volume, is more correct to pronounce "shí" than "dàn". During the Western Han Dynasty, the government stipulated that "stone" was a unit of weight. The "stone" as a unit of weight in the Western Han Dynasty was equal to 120 "jin". 1 kilogram in the Western Han Dynasty is about 250 grams of today's international standard unit, which happens to be equal to half of the "city jin" unit we use today. The weight of 1 stone in the Western Han Dynasty is equal to 30 "kilograms" of today's weight units.
Stone was also used as a unit of volume in the Western Han Dynasty. The unit of "stone" used to measure the amount of grain is the unit of volume taken. To put it simply, 1 stone equals 10 buckets, and 1 bucket equals 10 liters. 1 liter of the Western Han Dynasty is about equal to 200 ml of today's international standard units, so 1 stone is today's 20,000 ml. In terms of image example, the 1 stone of the Western Han Dynasty is slightly larger than the capacity of the bucket of today's standard water dispenser. However, the volume unit equal to 10 buckets stipulated by the Western Han government was "hú(斛)". Stone is "borrowed" as a volume unit is only a folk colloquial term, not a legal unit. The "stone" as a unit of volume is actually the same thing as the "hu" (斛). The fact that "stone" was stipulated by the government as a unit of volume was something that only happened in the Song Dynasty, which was very late.
What is more troublesome is that the "stone" involving the measurement of grain in the Western Han Dynasty had the distinction between large stones and small stones. Literature such as the Shuowen and the Nine Chapters of Arithmetic and the excavated Juyan Han Jian all show that when calculating grain, the stone as a volume unit has a conversion relationship of "big stone" and "small stone". The volume ratio of large stones and small stones is about 5:3. The equivalent of 20,000 milliliters mentioned earlier is the "big stone". The "small stone" is about equal to 12,000 milliliters today.
This distinction is very strange, because it is reasonable to say that the confusion of weights and measures caused by the difference between large and small stones and the difficulty of guaranteeing the tax revenue of the state treasury will never be tolerated by the government.
Qiu Guangming and others believe that the difference between large stones and small stones is caused by the loss of raw grain in the process of processing and making food.
The above discussion does not clarify all the disputes over the question of "stone" in the Western Han Dynasty. This dispute will affect our understanding of the unearthed Han Dynasty Jane Mu, and will also affect our understanding of the level of labor productivity of the entire Han Dynasty society.
The weighing instrument system of the Eastern Han Dynasty was different from that of the Western Han Dynasty. When we are confronted with ancient texts, we should be cautious about such questions.
12-2 Facsimile of the pig-faced bird's head faience pot
The pig-faced bird's head faience clay pot is 20.8 cm high and was excavated in 1981 in the Yinwa of the Wang family of Qin'an, Gansu. The age of pottery pot making is the Neolithic Age (about 5500 years ago), which belongs to the late Banpo cultural type.
The facsimile is the front main view and the left view of the same faience pot. The ink lines in the main view very graphically represent the pig's face. And the pig in the picture does not have fangs, indicating that this is a domesticated domestic pig and not a wild boar. The circle in the left view and the dots in the circle represent the projection of the cone seen from the vertex of the cone looking down, which represents the bird's beak.
In ancient times, pigs were commonly used to represent wealth and fertility, representing women; birds represented power, representing men.
In the nomadic animal husbandry economy, pigs are difficult animals to keep (pigs are not as suitable for nomadic migration as cattle, sheep, and dogs). From this point of view, many of the words that speak of meat, from "cow" or from "sheep" and rarely from "feng", are well understood.
In the Central Plains, 8,000 years ago, there was a transformation of the nomadic hunting economy to the (settled) farming economy, but the words related to meat still retained more characteristics of nomadic hunting life, that is, cattle and sheep were mostly on the sidelines. This feature remained until the Shang Dynasty. The capital of the Shang Dynasty was moved repeatedly, "the first eight and the last five" (Zhang Heng's "Xijing Fu"), and the capital of the country moved thirteen times in more than five hundred years. This seems very funny and strange to people today, like an unscrupulous merchant who "shoots a gun for a place". Fu Zhufu interpreted the shang dynasty's repeated moves as a "nomadic" economy. In the era of the nomadic economy, the cost of raising pigs was higher than that of the settled agricultural era, and its value was greater. Pigs in the Shang Dynasty were considered to be valuable and auspicious gifts. For example, in 2003, a piece of Shang Dynasty character Bu Jia was unearthed in Daxinzhuang, Shandong, and the main content of The Bu Ci is to sacrifice the deceased mother with a pig to avoid disaster.
With the development of farming, the stabilization of the settlement (the nomadic economy was gradually replaced by the settled agricultural economy) and the domestication of pigs, many words related to pigs were produced, such as "home" (there are pigs under the house). 豕, pronounced shǐ, meaning pig), "圂" (圂, pronounced hùn, meaning toilet, that is, toilet through the pigsty. The toilets where people can still be seen in the rural areas of southern and northern China in modern times are examples of pig pens and pigs kept in people's toilets. ）。
In addition, the words "fishy" and "ashamed" that we often say are also related to pigs. The Zhou Li Tianguan Tsukasa Zai says: Fishy and ashamed cannot be eaten. The "Sayings" explains that the so-called "fishy" is not the smell of meat, but the "stars in the meat", which refers to the pork with the dots of meat like rice grains ("rice star pig" with parasitic pork tapeworm, or "pox pork"). The so-called "shame" is the smell of grease on the pig. For the issue of pre-slaughter quarantine and food safety, the people of the Zhou Dynasty were afraid that they could control it better than they do now.
This faience pot is like the sun and the moon, mixed with yin and yang, depicting a very auspicious image. The hole in the top of the clay pot is so small that we doubt the nature of the vessel: it should not be just a daily vessel of daily use; it may not contain only clear water.
Inscription (zhì) interpretation:
The head pot of the bird does not love the treasure day, and the treasures are frequently produced. Ganqing Majia kiln, faience pottery is famous in the world. Whenever I smell a miracle, I don't expect this pot. One side is a jackal, and it is better to paint than to be alone. Looking for the bird's head, the mystery party has to read. The bird is the image of the yang, and the bird is the symbol of the female. The great wishes can be clearly defined. The paradise is carefully checked out, and the Chang'an fawn is re-instructed to sign the zhuān and the spring equinox.
Qián seal: XiaoLu Double cat house hand imitation hand Tuo Zhou Xiaolu yin
12-3 Fancy Pastry Tang Dynasty Excavated from the Astana Cemetery in Turpan from 1960-1973
The reason why tang dynasty fancy pastry has been preserved should be attributed to xinjiang's dry climate. Some of these pastries are pressed with molds, and some are hand-kneaded. The most recognizable of these pastries today are dumplings and charred rings.
The era of dumpling invention is long before the Tang Dynasty, and in the general history exhibition of the Sichuan Provincial Museum, there is a piece of Eastern Han Dynasty (páo) kitchen figurine unearthed in Xindu, and a dumpling is placed on the dish case in front of the pottery figurine.
12-4 Preparation tea map mural Liao Dynasty length 181 cm, height 152 cm In 1993, the tomb of Zhang Kuangzheng (buried in 1093 AD) of the Liao Dynasty in Xuanhua, Hebei Province, was excavated
In the tea preparation picture, the girl in front of her is pushing the tea mill and crushing the tea pieces sawn off the tea cake into pieces. The teenager blowing a fire by the stove wears Khitan attire. The hairstyle on the top of his head was typical of the Khitan hair (kūn) hair (the top of his head was shaved bald). The Khitan man standing behind the teenager seemed to be holding out his hand to the tea-milling girl. The mural also features two handmaidens holding trays (wearing floral jewelry on their heads). The maid's head combed three high buns, which should be a popular hair ornament at that time.
In the picture, we can see two letter boxes, the large box has five layers and the small box has three layers, which are inferred to be used to hold food.
In addition to plum bottles and pots with rattan covers, there was a crank saw, a tongs, a brown brush and an iron dagger on the table. The saw is used to saw tea cakes, the fire tongs are charcoal fire in the furnace, the brush is to remove the tea foam floating on the tea soup, and the iron handle dagger is the so-called "rule" in Lu Yu's "Tea Classic". "Ze" is a long-handled light spoon that is specially used to add crushed tea powder to boiling water when cooking tea.
The way tea was drunk in the Tang Dynasty and the tea soup in the Tang Dynasty were completely different from our concept today. In the Tang Dynasty, tea drinking was to chop the tea cake into a powder and pass through "Luo" ("Luo", that is, a sieve. "Cha Luo" is a tea set specially used to sift tea powder) and added to boiling water to form a paste, while adding salt, green onions, ginger, orange peel, mint, etc., similar to a terrible "paste spicy soup". It is no wonder that this kind of "tea soup" that is completely strange and imaginary makes people feel unbearable can refresh their minds and make people drink without dozing off.
The tea ceremony of the Tang Dynasty was passed down to future generations and completely annihilated on Chinese soil after a hundred years of Yuan rule. On the contrary, the Japanese tea ceremony retains some of the contents of the Tang Dynasty tea ceremony. The tea brewing water that arose in the Yuan Dynasty has been passed down to this day, but there is no longer an "Tao" component here. The so-called "tea ceremony" and "tea culture" that prevail in China today, the so-called "tea ceremony thought of 'diligence and simplicity'", and many twisting gestures are all nonsense fabricated by good people to the wall in the past thirty years. The so-called "study of tea culture" is naturally more blind. There is also the more absurd propaganda that the so-called 沤 (òu) has cost more than a million yuan for a Pu'er tea cake for several years, which is simply fraudulent. This is precisely the so-called non-existence of the instrument, and the non-restoration of the Tao.
12-5 Capricorn pattern bud button tripod silver salt table (tea set) Tang Dynasty Height 27.9 cm Excavated in 1987 from the underground palace of Fufeng Famen Temple in Shaanxi Province
12-6 Gilded (liú) Jin Feihong pattern silver ze (tea set) Tang Dynasty length 19.2 cm Excavated in 1987 from the underground palace of Fufeng Famen Temple in Shaanxi
12-7 History of Sugar, book shadow by Ji Xianlin, Jiangxi Education Publishing House, 1998
In the pre-Qin era, there was no sugar in the sense of today. The pre-Qin bird is actually just what we call maltose today. Chinese sugarcane cultivation and sugar refining methods were both introduced from India in ancient times. But the strange thing is that the Sanskrit word "white sugar" cīnī originally meant "Chinese" in Sanskrit.
Ji Xianlin believes that China's local sugar making in the past only knew how to boil concentrated sugarcane juice and make brown coarse sugar that was as hard as stone. The Sugar Making Technique, which was introduced from India in the Tang Dynasty, added alkali (lime or grass ash, that is, calcium hydroxide or potassium carbonate) to the sugar refining process to produce loose brown sugar. The word sugar arkarā in ancient Indian Sanskrit was also inherited by the Tang Dynasty Chinese, known as the "Fire Cutting Order".
Sugar making later developed tremendously in China. Chinese created a method of decolorizing the syrup with yellow mud (using the large specific surface properties of loess in the water suspension to adsorb impurities and pigments in the precipitated syrup), and produced white sugar and rock sugar.
Sugar production in ancient India was once the world's forefront. The word "sugar" ("arkarā") in Sanskrit later evolved into "zucker" in German, "sucre" in French, "sugar" in English, and so on. Although arkarā was introduced to China by India, the technology of making rock sugar that was later developed in China was transmitted back to India, resulting in the sanskrit word "cīnī" (meaning "Chinese") for rock sugar. "cīnī" was passed on to other Indo-European languages through Sanskrit, becoming "kandieren" in German, "candi" in French, and "candy" in English.