This article is excerpted from Gao Lin's "Emperor's Round Dance: Europe from Enlightenment to Sunset"
There are many deletions, please refer to the original book for more exciting content
Voltaire (1694–1778)
Voltaire was a wonderful man, and many times we don't know him, because most of us have not read the Philosophical Book, nor have we read the Treatise on Customs. But if we insist on reading "Philosophical Books", "Customs", and even "Honest Man", do we really understand Voltaire?!
If we read Voltaire's works like a provincial youth at the end of the 18th century, and then come to Paris, sit in some café, and wonder if Rousseau is playing chess next to you, or in some lady's salon, next to Bunyaman Gunsdown, then we talk about Voltaire and his ideas. You will soon find that everyone is showing a look of surprise and looking at you with the expression of an alien animal... Finally someone plucked up the courage to come up and pat you on the shoulder and say, "Are you really talking about our Father Arue?" ”
Then you turn around and listen to them, listen to them talk about voltaire in their eyes, and you want to ask the same question as them: "Are we really talking about the same Voltaire?" ”
The Golden Age of The Dan Rider
In our view, Voltaire was a great philosopher, and to them Voltaire was also a great philosopher, but our philosopher Voltaire was the author of the Philosophical Compendium or the Dictionary of Philosophy, and their philosopher Voltaire was a satirist full of "witty words" or "aphorisms".
Does Voltaire alone have this dual image? If someone says that the great philosopher Diderot actually wanted to go crazy for money, Montesquieu inherited his uncle's position and immediately sold and cashed out to live a good life, and Holbach achieved financial freedom because of the death of his uncle, are not our inherent impressions of Enlightenment thinkers shattered?
In fact, as long as we carefully read their writings, it is not difficult to discover the scales and claws of this forgotten world. Publishing censorship, Voltaire said, was unnecessary because only one out of ten people read, nine out of ten read only novels, and the remaining one who read philosophy could not understand it. Montesquieu said that in their time, people only read books after getting up every day and before going out, just to talk about it in front of others later. These two sentences can almost restore the whole picture of the reader's world in the Enlightenment era.
It was an era when monarchs tried to share power with the wise. The Great French Monarchy reached its peak in both the degree of absolutism and the ornate elegance of the court. In the Great French Monarchy, only one man's thoughts are valuable, and only one man's judgment is correct, and that is the king, the nobles, who can no longer give opinions in a vivid way.
In 1666, Colbert introduced Louis XIV to the Members of the Royal Academy of Sciences
When Louis XV and Louis XVI ascended the throne, the king who had lost his opponent also lost his motivation because of loneliness. Now the King of France hoped for more and more interesting people to fill the nobility who kept their mouths shut. Thus, the salon culture that began to flourish in the time of Louis XIII and Louis XIV bloomed. It is very clear that there is only one condition for flying, and that is to make the king notice you. And the best way to get the king to notice you is "aphorisms" or what Balzac called "quips."
Balzac said the French could throw their heads and blood for a "witty remark." Everyone who enters the salon has and only one criterion, and that is to stand out and get others to notice you. To the salon hostess, these "wise men" are like horses on the racecourse, every dinner, every afternoon tea is carefully selected, and the "horse racers" in various styles and fields are carefully assigned to their seats. Do you think going to the Marquise's house for dinner really makes you eat? Spending a night in a salon is actually much more tiring than hiding in a study and writing a book. But the risk and reward are also much higher!
"Reciting Voltaire's Tragedy 'Chinese Orphans' in Madame Jofran's Salon"
When it comes to risk and reward, at the end of the 18th century, one country had developed a mature readership. That's Britain! In britain, a successful writer can already support himself with the income from writing. From Alexander Pope to Anna Dradcliffe, who writes horror novels, if you watch the movie "Becoming Jane Austen", you will remember that Jane Austen visited Mrs. Radcliffe when she wanted to elope with the male protagonist, hoping that she could live by writing like her.
Unfortunately, France is not able to do so, because of two sides: First, although france's cultural level is very high, it has not formed a copyright-conscious readership. In France, even if you are a recognized master of comedy like Molière, you are not sure if you will be able to make money in this life, and after his death, people find that his family property has been lost almost.
Another reason is that the writer himself lived in such luxury that there were almost only two kinds of life to choose from in Versailles: the life of the "superior" and the life of the man who served the superior. And many writers are actually not rich. Don't look at Voltaire called "de Voltaire", but this is a pen name, Voltaire was originally called François Arue, "De Voltaire" is the aristocratic pen name he gave himself. Montesquieu was much better, he was a true nobleman and the title of two barons, but montesquieu would not be so laid back without his uncle leaving a judge position that could be sold for cash.
So in the late period of the old system, a French literati had no family background, but he had to live a superior life. Enter the system and marry Bai Fumei. Yes, although more than 200 years have passed, the genius brother of any era still relies on these two roads to reach the peak of life.
Sharon is intriguing precisely because it is the gateway to both paths. The Bai Fumei family opened its doors to entertain guests, as long as you attracted the attention of the lady, maybe you would catch up with two good things. When you are red in the salon, the ladies will remember you, and more importantly, the aristocratic society of Versailles will remember you. You want to impress the lady, and you want to impress other people, what to do?
At that time, as in our time, by talking, by telling jokes, our time had a more accurate word - "paragraph".
But the paragraph is also divided into how to talk, nine out of ten people at a table are paragraph players, how do you think you should talk? "I have a classmate..." After saying this, you can shut up and eat your meal well, because tomorrow you will not have a chance to come again! So it has to be short, it has to be funny, it has to be deep, it has to be funny.
Yes, Versailles wants "wit", and "wit" is to speak humorously, intelligently and philosophically, which cannot be long, otherwise no one at the dinner table will have the patience to listen to you.
This is the rule of the game in voltaire's time.
Voltaire's turn was born
Portrait of Voltaire
Voltaire's life is actually very similar to the life of another great French writer, that is, Hugo. The first half of Voltaire and Hugo's lives were a process of trying to climb the social pyramid. And they have climbed to a very high position in the middle stages of their lives. If their lives had come to an abrupt end, their position and image in history would never have been as high as they are today.
Just as Hugo was not originally a novelist, Voltaire's original dream was not to become a philosopher; on the contrary, although he often belittled poetry, his initial dream was to become a poet. To be a poet and a classical tragic poet, to celebrate noble virtues, noble emotions and tearful self-sacrifice, in the time of Louis XIV meant ascending to the pinnacle of the French literary scene. The Bourbons shaped the two examples of Corneille and Racine, virgils of the great French monarchy. Since then, French literati have wanted to be the next Racine.
Racine's brilliant life ended at the age of five, and it was impossible for Voltaire not to want to be another Racine, so he wrote a great deal of plays and poems. Henriate, his almost forgotten epic today, was the stepping stone he hoped would use to smash the doors of the Palace of Versailles. Unfortunately, Voltaire was not born at the right time, and many years later he himself said that there was no other Racine position in Louis XV's court. In fact, not only was there no in the court of Louis XV, but also in the court of the regent before Louis XV came of age. When a young man with lofty ideals appeared in the court of the style we have just described, he certainly did not entertain him. And in addition to this lofty and solemn side, Voltaire also has a harsh and mean side that catches what is black. The combination of these two contrasting qualities is self-evident.
The Conflict between Voltaire and Roan Chaber, by Sir William Ocherson
Voltaire wanted the regent to be his protector, and the regent sent him to the Bastille. After a year and a half in the Bastille, the young Arue was not only not angered by his misfortune, but on the contrary, he truly recognized the rules of versailles. What's more, when he was finally released, he had a second chance, and the regent liked his harsh side, as long as he was not sarcastic, and the regent soon received Voltaire again. Speaking of his imprisonment, Voltaire said to the regent that he was indeed grateful to His Majesty the King for providing me with food and drink, but "I beg His Highness not to provide accommodation next time"! This sentence received full effect, and the satin voltaire was born.
But human red is one thing, work red is another. Voltaire mastered the rules of versailles, but Versailles did not need another Racine anymore. Voltaire will have to wait a long time to recognize this, and in his quest to become another Racine, Voltaire has been left behind by other writers, Montesquieu rose to fame in Paris as a happy rich man with the Persian Letters, and Voltaire had to wait many years to win back a round with the Philosophical Book. In the years when he was about to be overwhelmed by many "masters", Voltaire's greatest gain was actually the love of Madame De Châtelet. Relying on Madame DesChedlais, Voltaire maintained his reputation in France and, more importantly, he opened up a blue ocean in Europe.
Voltaire first made his career in England. The French regent wants to unite with Britain to resist the Spanish king, Voltaire's long-neglected "Henriate" describes the French religious war, and the protagonist Henry IV is the hero of the United Britain and the West, so "HenryArt" instantly has the color of promoting the great friendship between Britain and France. Henryart not only found publishers, but also subscribed to a wide range of British personalities, including future Prime Minister Walpole. A French writer famous in England naturally attracted the attention of the Palace of Versailles, and Cardinal Fleury, the French minister who advocated the unification of Britain, also had contact with Voltaire. But Voltaire's rise to the pinnacle of his life was not yet the British.
The real value of this set of tactics that Voltaire honed in the salon was to propagate for the monarch. The king of the Great French Monarchy no longer needed propaganda, Louis XV did not need to rely on the personal charm of the king to contribute to the country, that set was done by Henry IV or Louis XIV, Louis XV, as the most powerful king in Europe, only need to let the ministers win him honors. But fortunately, there are many monarchs in Europe, especially in Germany, where the court is full of cattle feathers, and there are also kings with large votes to re-embark on the entrepreneurial road of the Bourbon Dynasty. In the upper class, everyone was proud to speak French. Russian aristocrats who could speak French did not speak Russian. If you really can't speak French, you must also do not speak Russian well, or do not speak Russian well, and add nasal sounds when speaking Russian, so that it seems French. Germany, of course, too, will say to you very sincerely, "You wait, let me think about how to speak this word to you in German." "It was a good time for French diplomats not to learn a foreign language. They needed someone like Voltaire too much.
In particular, the young King Frederick II of Prussia was bent on dressing himself up as a specimen of an enlightened monarch revered by the Enlightenment. Voltaire was the best tool for achieving his goal. Voltaire speaks deeply, interestingly, attractively, philosophically, and easily learned. Did Voltaire speak of aphorisms? No! This is the advertising slogan of the year. Voltaire found his own blue ocean and ate everywhere in France, England, and Prussia. Diderot learned this later, so he took a vote from Empress Catherine II of Russia.
"Frederick the Great's Flute Recital at Sanssouci Palace" menzel painting
In fact, Diderot was not Voltaire's opponent in terms of money,and Voltaire did not provide ideas to Frederick II of Prussia in vain. He went to Prussia on the condition that Frederick agreed to pay him an annual salary of twenty thousand livres (when he left France, he sold his title of French court attendant for sixty thousand livres). In Prussia, Voltaire did not miss any opportunity to make money, but unfortunately he suffered a famous blow at the speculation on Saxon government bonds. The Elector of Saxony issued a bond whose value fell to half the original par price. Frederick had demanded that the Bonds purchased by the Prussians be repaid in gold equivalent to the par value when they matured. But some cunning Prussians bought bonds abroad at low prices and returned to Prussia in full. Frederick ordered a ban on the import of such bonds. Voltaire "defied the wind" and entrusted the Jewish banker Hirsch to buy a large number of Saxon bonds from abroad. When Hirsch warned that the bonds could not be brought into Prussia legally, Voltaire packaged a ticket saying that he had connections with the government and could protect him. But then Voltaire and Hirsch fell apart and quarreled until the court, and this illegal speculation was exposed. Frederick also used a maxim in his comments on this matter: "Our philosopher friend is really not like a philosopher when it comes to money." ”
The last rays of light
Throughout Europe, Voltaire not only became rich, but also gained attention in France with his influence and prestige in frederick II's court. Voltaire's fame and the support of Madame DesCadés truly reached the pinnacle of his life: he became a member of the Académie de France, wearing the golden key of the court attendant. If Voltaire had died at this time, he would still be seen as the embodiment of the fashion of Louis XV's day, but it would not be enough to name an era.
But this was the fate, in 1749 Madame Duchess died, and in 1753 Voltaire's friendship with Frederick also failed. Although he even made a fortune after success, Voltaire was on the verge of the stage, and no one needed Voltaire anymore. Just like Hugo after 1848, just like Hugo who was going to Belgium to write the Punishment Collection, the glorious Voltaire in history had to wait until this moment to surface.
After the June Revolution of 11848, Hugo, who had been conservative in politics, gradually turned to a republican position. In the presidential election, Hugo voted for Napoleon III. In December 1851, Louis-Bonaparte staged a coup d'état to restore the monarchy, and Hugo went into exile for 19 years. During his exile, Hugo continued to write literary works to satirize Napoleon III, including the famous pamphlet "Little Napoleon" and the political satire poem "Punishment Collection". During this period, Hugo became a great fighter for morality.
When the Carla lawsuit occurred, Voltaire was hiding on the Swiss border, in a stable position. At this time, he wants money and money, and he wants status, and the only thing he lacks is the sublime and immortal. When people let Rousseau, who was still struggling for something similar, stand up and speak out, Rousseau was very cunning to resign, and Voltaire, a literati trained by the Jesuits, stood up and spoke, and exploded with a force that shocked the entire era. For he shouted out one of the noblest and most memorable claims of the entire Enlightenment—tolerance.
The Enlightenment promoted reason against ignorance, emphasizing the cleverness and ingenuity of means over the legitimacy of ends themselves. This idea continues to develop the kind of cold utilitarianism that the crippled Talerand and Metternich exhibited politically. But Voltaire, the standard-bearer of the Enlightenment and the embodiment of the fashion of the Enlightenment, the sarcastic Voltaire of nature, shouted out the rare warm ideas of the Enlightenment. It is this that allows Voltaire to surpass all competitors.
Voltaire is clever, and his competitors are not stupid; Voltaire is sarcastic and sarcastic, and everyone who wishes to defeat Voltaire will appear more vicious than he is. Voltaire always announces the demise of an opponent with laughter, so everyone who wants to become Voltaire likes to laugh and looks for every ridiculous person to mock it. But Voltaire, a cunning old man in an embroidered dress, wig, and hunched over, suddenly stood up straight, loudly announcing a claim that his followers would never care about.
This incident painted the most glorious light on Voltaire's life, and also made up for the lack of moral power and human good nature lacking in the cold rationality of the Enlightenment.
In 1778, at the age of 84, Voltaire returned, and the whole of Paris was crowded with people, and people said that the cheers of that day were the Parisians welcoming their true king. The image of the Internet celebrity Voltaire and the philosopher Arue also combined. After returning to Paris after 29 years of parting, Father Arue's life also came to an end, and he died after conquering the city he had dreamed of conquering, and only lived in splendor for a few months. In 1791, his coffin was sent to the Pantheon, where Papa Arue was proud of all those who had ever competed with him, like Fontenail, who was also a friend and foe, proudly sat on all the pamphlets that attacked him. There, he had to wait for almost a century before he could wait for Hugo.
Voltaire's tomb at the Pantheon