The Americans engaged in endless debates about war, the capabilities of Russell Alexander Alger and William Rufus Shaft, the supply of military supplies and field hospitals, the defeat of William Thomas Sampson and cooperation with William Rufus Schaffett, the tactics and so-called weaknesses of Winfield Scott Schleigh, and the sincerity of William McKinley's diplomacy. In these shameful debates, only one name attracted public attention, and the only one who could draw soldiers into politics and seek promotion was Theodore Roosevelt.
At that time, he was not yet forty years old. For nearly two decades, he has been proactive. In 1880, after graduating from Harvard University, Theodore Roosevelt entered the turbulent politics of New York State. When Stephen Grover Cleveland was governor, he advocated legislative reform. In 1884, he was one of the opponents competing with James Gillespie Bryan for the presidential nomination. He did not solicit votes for himself or join the detachment, for he had developed a political philosophy that only those who remained firmly within the party were capable of reform. But he chose to resign and started a ranch life in the west.
Subsequently, President Benjamin Harrison appointed him Commissioner for Civilian Services and supported him in strictly managing related matters through the civilian recruitment system. In 1895, before leaving his post as Chief of Police in New York City, Theodore Roosevelt's resolute and forceful crackdown on political corruption had marked his new reformer. He was always an enterprising politician and Republican, never losing interest in reform. As police chief, he earned a new reputation and more supporters. In 1897, Theodore Roosevelt assumed the post of Deputy Secretary of the Navy in preparation for war. He also found time to write many books about the American West, reforms, naval history, and outdoor life.
In April 1898, on the eve of the war, he resigned his position and organized a volunteer cavalry regiment, which was soon named "Mang Cavalry" by the public. During the war, wherever there was fighting, there were volunteer cavalry regiments that showed heroism. In the fall of 1898, Theodore Roosevelt risked violating the theories of all disciplines to attack the government's health policy. In October 1898, despite Thomas Collier Pratt's public objections, Theodore Roosevelt was nominated for the Republican nomination for governor of New York.
Theodore Roosevelt with his Volunteer Cavalry Regiment
In the 1898 campaign, Theodore Roosevelt, as a candidate, came to voters across New York State and stood at the podium day after day to speak. Theodore Roosevelt's party and uniformed "Reckless Horsemen" reinforced his advocacy of good governance and patriotic fervor. In November 1898, Theodore Roosevelt was elected governor of New York, the same day that Republican control of Congress was assured. This would make it possible for the Republican Party to fulfill the last obligation it promised in the 1896 elections.
The passage of the Gold Standard Act in March 1900 was the result of a Republican effort. It established a gold reserve of $150 million as its standard currency, established a gold reserve of $150 million, and made it a duty of the Treasury to maintain the value of gold for $313 million of green-backed notes from the Civil War, $550 million of silver and silver bills, $75 million of Sherman Silver Purchase Act Treasury bills, and $300 million of notes issued by the Bank of State in 1900. This currency bill is far from satisfactory, relying on redemption policies that can easily lead to sudden changes in value. But the bill dispelled fears of the free minting of silver coins.
In the spring of 1900, Congress had to consider the basic problems of colonial government. Since the establishment of quasi-state governments in Hawaii and Porto, the United States has prepared to establish a similar government in the Philippine Islands, but has been hampered by a rebellion. Before the outbreak of the Spanish-American War, the local people on these islands rebelled, making it easier for the United States to overthrow Spanish rule. The islands were not guaranteed independence, as Cuba did, but became territory of the United States. In February 1899, under the leadership of local leader Emilio Aguinaldo, a riot against the United States broke out, gaining the support of many Americans. The U.S. crackdown on Philippine independence spurred an anti-imperialist movement against annexing the islands. The Philippine republican system is incompatible with other foreign colonies in the United States. The negative effects of the dictatorship of the ruling class and the lessons of the fall of the Roman Empire are before the public. Carl Kristin Schultz was one of the leaders of the protest. His followers include many prominent advocates of tariff and civil service reforms. In 1901, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld territorial expansion and constitutionality of imperial control. In fact, as early as 1900, it made decisions based on its own interests.
In the 1900 campaign, all nominations were undisputed. In 1896, William Jennings Bryan established leadership by chance. Although conservative Democrats still distrust him, he is overwhelmed by popular recognition of his honesty and benevolence. Speaking at the Democratic Convention in Kansas City, John Peter Altgelde said, "Four years ago, we stopped taking the middle line and no longer used language with a double meaning. We came with the power of candor to participate in the greatest campaign ever held on the American continent... For the first time in the history of this country, American democracy has so unanimously supported one person. William Jennings Bryan was unanimously nominated for a political programme that repeated the demands of 1896 currency reform and denounced imperialism, and Adelaide Ewing Stevenson was nominated as a candidate for vice president.
The strong condemnation of imperialism has led Tony William Jennings Bryan and Adelaide Ewing Stevenson to the support of a group of independents, what the Republican media calls the "Vote by the Nose" group. They strongly support the gold standard, but argue that monetary policy is not as important as the problem of imperialism. The Republicans recognized the Spanish-American War as having good intentions in the war, and uncontroversially re-nominated William McKinley in Philadelphia. Vice President Garrett Augustus Hobart died while in office, or else he would have been nominated. As a substitute, Theodore Roosevelt was discredited by the attack of rumors. Senator Thomas Collier Pratt was reluctant to let him run for governor of New York again, encouraging him to run for vice president. In the spring of 1900, Theodore Roosevelt repeatedly declared that he would not seek or accept the nomination for vice president. Marcus Alonzo Hanna and William McKinley did not want Theodore Roosevelt to be nominated, but the overwhelming presence of delegates in the General Assembly forced him to accept the nomination.
In 1900, William McKinley continued his vision of preserving American dignity in 1896, and his vice presidential candidate demonstrated the same lobbying prowess as William Jennings Bryan. In hundreds of speeches across nearly all states, they showed their personalities to voters. The two issues of imperialism and the free minting of silver coins divided voters into different camps, but the government provided the economic basis for a commercial recovery in all its aspects. Republicans have been praised for the prevailing prosperity in the country, while pro-Republican cartoonists have emphasized the concept of a "full lunch box" as a reason to continue to support them. In 1900, compared to 1896, the issues of the candidates were unclear, and the proportion of citizens participating in the voting was small. Many voters dissatisfied with the two candidates voted for prohibitionists or socialists. In the end, the Republican candidate received two hundred and ninety-two electoral votes, while William Jennings Bryan and Adlai Ewing Stevenson received one hundred and fifty-five electoral votes. At the same time, continued Republican control of Congress was assured.
Following Ulysses Simpson Grant, William McKinley became another re-elected president. In 1901, his cabinet changed little. Elihu Lute remained in the U.S. War Department, refusing to consider the vice presidency and working to reorder the philippine, Cuban, and U.S. military order. Secretary of State John Milton Hay has been exchanging letters with insurgents in China.
Of the successful U.S. foreign ministers, only William Henry Seward and John Quincy Adams were on par with John Milton Hay. John Milton Hay was born in the Midwest of the United States in 1838 and served as Lincoln's private secretary throughout the Civil War. After this, he accepted a number of less important appointments and often quoted his diplomatic experience in literature. The Biography of Abraham Lincoln is one of his monumental works. His beautiful verses attract many readers. His anonymously published novel The Breadwinner is an important study of the early labor movement. In 1897, President William McKinley sent John Milton Hay as ambassador to London, whereas it was customary that only the American elite could serve at St. James's Court. In the fall of 1898, President William McKinley recalled him as Secretary of State. In 1900, the Boxer Rebellion broke out in China, providing the first opportunity for new diplomacy in the United States. The United States has always been committed to realizing its international ideals, and this event has allowed the expansion of American diplomacy, which has become narrow because of the Spanish-American war. Under the leadership of John Milton Hay, the United States entered China to resolve disputes and suppress the Boxer Rebellion, while opening the door to China's foreign trade. When President William McKinley was assassinated by an anarchist, John Milton Hay was still busy negotiating. On September 14, 1901, Theodore Roosevelt succeeded him as President of the United States.
President William McKinley was killed
At the Buffalo residence where President William McKinley died, Theodore Roosevelt hastily held his inauguration and announced that he would continue to complete President William McKinley's unfinished term. He insisted on appointing former members of the Cabinet and continuing his previous work. He took over the work shelved by the previous president. In the past few months, the change from the political party administration to the individual administrative department has not been obvious. President Theodore Roosevelt was enterprising, as amiable and warm-hearted as William McKinley. Through john Milton Hay's skilful political skills, the new political climate in the United States profoundly influenced world politics beyond any period in power since George Washington proposed the principle of neutrality.
The question of Cuba has been unresolved. Under the leadership of General Leonard Wood, the U.S. army completely reorganized the island. Local health facilities have learned to repel mosquitoes and have resisted the onslaught of yellow fever. On May 20, 1902, the Constitution enacted by the Cubans entered into force. It was also on that day that the United States withdrew from the country and left it to manage its own affairs, provided that Cuba undertook to remain independent forever and would not fall into a debt crisis without any solution, and that the United States would intervene in Cuban affairs in accordance with the law in order to preserve its independence and the functions of its Government. In the winter between 1901 and 1902, President Theodore Roosevelt urged Congress to adopt a policy of reciprocity in commerce with Cuba. His proposal was supported by Cuban and U.S. sugar trust officials, but in the Senate it was opposed by a combination of Republicans backed by sugar beet tycoons and Democrats backed by sugar cane tycoons. In 1902, this measure failed to materialize and created a conflict between President Theodore Roosevelt and Congress. By 1903, the revised Reciprocal Treaty was ratified.
In 1902, in The Hague, the United States became the first prosecution to test the effectiveness of a new arbitral tribunal. In St. Petersburg in 1898, the Russian Tsar invited representatives of various countries to the Disarmament Conference. His motives have been questioned and ridiculed. In the summer of 1899, the conference was held at the Summer Palace of the Queen of the Netherlands in Huis Ten Bosch in The Hague. At that meeting, the disarmament plan had proved ineffective, but the representatives of all States present at the conference had accepted that a treaty should be concluded for the settlement of international disputes. The Hague Tribunal is likely to be cancelled because it is not taken seriously. At the request of a peace advocate, President Theodore Roosevelt submitted a small case to the Tribunal for arbitration. It was a dispute between Mexico and the United States over the Piety Fund involving control of the California Church Fund. In this lawsuit, the United States ultimately won, but its importance lies in the fact that it is the first case to be arbitrated by a court in The Hague.
When another Latin American country was in trouble, the promises made by the United States at the time of Cuba's independence were not kept. Because of the war, Venezuela fell into debt to European creditors and was slow to repay. In December 1902, in retaliation, Britain and Germany announced a blockade of Venezuelan ports, and soon other countries joined Britain and Germany. President Theodore Roosevelt said he wanted to protect Venezuela in the incident and urged European creditors to stop using force and use arbitration to resolve the issue. Under his leadership, the Joint Commission was finally formed, and in 1903, the relevant legal basis was referred to the Hague Tribunal. This vignette involves a new interpretation of Monroeism. This interpretation makes it clear that unless the United States wants to help South American countries evade their debts, it must bear some responsibility for the real solution of their debt problems to those countries.
Next, Alaska's border issue became the subject of arbitration. Since the first wave of immigration booms in the Yukon in the summer of 1897, local mining camps have become increasingly important. Many of these camps are located on the 141-degree west side close to Canada, and all camps can be reached by river steamboat or by taking a small road from the south. The most important ports of entry to the region are Dyah and Skagway, at the source of the Lynn Canal. The Lynn Canal is a narrow bay about ninety miles long that leads to the mainland. From these ports, miners entered the interior, climbed the Cilkoo Pass or the Chirkate Pass, and followed several overland trails into the highs of the Yukon.
The importance of the Daya and Skagway ports has raised renewed concerns about their ownership and alaska's borders. When William Henry Seward bought Alaska in 1867, the borders of Alaska were demarcated by a treaty between Russia and Great Britain in 1825. At that time, alaska's border line was 141 degrees west of St. Elias to the Arctic Ocean, and southeast along an irregular coastline from Mount St. Elias to the Pacific Ocean at 54 degrees 40 minutes north latitude. This narrow coastal boundary line is described as "a line along a winding coast", which is bounded by mountains if there are mountain ranges on the coast, but in no case can the boundary line exceed thirty miles wide. The narrow Lynn Canal runs through a thirty-mile-wide boundary strip, so the debate has largely focused on whether the canal should be seen as a meandering coastal strip through which the border must pass, or as a stream through which the border can be crossed.
In the three decades after 1867, Britain and Canada drew up maps to classify the Lynn Canal and other similar fjords as The United States. But after 1897, Canada, in order to facilitate the proposal that the border should cross the canal, assigned Daya and Skaguet to Britain. In 1898, the Joint High Commission of Canada and the United States met and was unable to reconcile the controversy. In 1903, alaska's border issue was referred to a London court for adjudication. Suspiciously, the three adjudicators, Elihu Rutter, Henry Cabot Lodge and George Turner, as necessary conditions for the signing of the treaty, were all from the United States. But the arguments made by the U.S. counsel persuaded the Chief Justice, the British arbitrator Viscount Alverstone. His one vote plus three votes from the United States made the result of the ruling satisfy the requirements of the United States.
On the issues of The Hague, Cuba and Venezuela, as well as the alaskan border dispute, President Theodore Roosevelt and John Milton Hay showed a firm and rational attitude for the first time, attracting the attention of Europeans to U.S. diplomacy. This is unprecedented. U.S. diplomacy has become a popular research topic at American universities. Britain and Germany seem to want to reconcile with the United States. The German emperor bought a motorboat in the United States, sent his brother Prince Henry of Prussia to the launch ceremony, and sent a German nobleman as a minister to the United States, who had long been a personal friend of the president of the United States. While the firmness of the United States was recognized, in the subsequent incident involving Panama, Colombia, the United States was criticized for its fairness.
In 1898, the dangerous voyage of the Oregon strengthened the United States' belief in building the Isthmus Canal, and by this time the Clayton-Bulwon Treaty was no longer sufficient for practical needs. Around 1880, Ferdinand de Recebbe and his French company in Panama raised the issue, but at the time the United States limited the construction and control of the canal because of a treaty. It was not until the fall of 1899, at the behest of President William McKinley, that John Milton Hay entered into negotiations, and the situation was reversed. On February 5, 1900, Congress debated the Nicaragua Canal Project. John Milton Hay and Lord Ponsford signed a treaty opening the canal to the United States for construction, but only if it remained neutral. The treaty prohibits builders from fortifying the canal and does not use the canal as a tool of war. The treaty was terminated by the involvement of the Senate. On 18 November 1901, John Milton Hay signed a second treaty with Lord Ponsford, in which Britain relinquished all previous rights, except that all canal users were treated equally, and left the discretion of the United States over the future construction of the shipping lanes. The Senate immediately ratified the treaty and quickly completed the study of the route and plan for construction.
At the time of the second Treaty of Hay-Ponsford, the United States Isthmus Commission, established in 1899, was preparing an investigation report on the canal route it had designated. In the end, there are only two practical routes left, one in Panama and the other passing through Nicaragua. The first route was under the control of French companies. Because the company had concessions and the price was set too high, the Commission recommended the adoption of a nicaragua route that was generally more feasible. At first, the U.S. Congress was very supportive of this line, but in 1902 this tendency was weakened. Senator Marcus Alonzo Hanna was more supportive of the Panama route and fought for it. Fearing that the Nicaragua route would be favored, the French-Panamanian company had to lower prices. The earthquake and eruption in Martinique remind the world that Nicaragua is closer to active volcanic areas than Panama and is therefore more dangerous. In June 1902, Congress authorized President Theodore Roosevelt to choose the Panama Route and immediately began construction of the canal.
Negotiations between the United States and Colombia over the right to build a canal in Panama dragged on from 1902 to 1903. Influenced by the long revolution, Colombia realized that building a waterway in the isthmus was its most valuable investment. After lengthy discussions, the Colombian government authorized its ambassador to Washington to sign a treaty retaining Colombia's sovereignty over the isthmus, but giving the United States a concession to build the canal. In exchange, the United States should pay $10 million in cash and an annuity of $250,000. In January 1903, the treaty was signed in Washington and was considered a diplomatic victory for Presidents John Milton Hay and Theodore Roosevelt. Despite the opposition of supporters of the Nicaragua line, the treaty was ratified by the United States Senate in March 1903. However, the Colombian Congress rejected the treaty and adjourned the meeting for reconsideration.
In the autumn of 1903, President Theodore Roosevelt decided to adopt the Panamanian route. The French company is already eager to take on the project. Colombians living in isthmus areas are eager to end negotiations and dig the canal as soon as possible. In October 1903, President Theodore Roosevelt wrote to a close friend of his for an uprising against the Isthmus of Colombia, but he denied any intention of provoking it. The friend made the letter public in his own name, but before the letter could be printed, the uprising took place. The U.S. Department of State was informed of the incident in advance. On November 3, 1903, the State Council sent a telegram asking when the uprising had started. Later that day, the Republic of Panama declared its independence. The United States blocked Colombia's armed repression, recognizing Panama by telegram as a new nation. On November 18, 1903, in Washington, the United States signed a canal concession treaty with Panama. A few years later, when commentators accused President Theodore Roosevelt of tantamount to taking advantage of the weak neighbors, he proudly said, "It was I who made Panama." ”
After the diplomatic entanglement was clarified, the construction of the canal quickly began. Emergencies such as health, labor, materials and engineering were solved in a timely and effective manner. Congress has not hesitated to inject a lot of money into the project. In 1914, the first ships passed through the locks. In 1915, at the Isthmus Region and the San Francisco Exposition, the United States celebrated the canal's official opening in the form of a naval parade.
In managing domestic affairs and developing foreign relations, the United States has abundant energy and clear goals. Congress has ensured that the two develop in tandem, but the development results of the former are not as remarkable as the latter. President Theodore Roosevelt made the appointment just as one who served on the Civil Service Council for six years would expect. Few of them have been criticized for reform. Under the siege of Southern public opinion, especially in the case of the black female director of the Post Office in Indianoara, Mississippi, and the black tax collector at the Charleston checkpoint, President Theodore Roosevelt has consistently insisted that federal appointees should select capable people in each region, and that the door of opportunity must not be closed to blacks. Just weeks after President Theodore Roosevelt took office, when He entertained Booker Tolliver Washington at the White House, he had heated discussions about the status of blacks. Some Southern Republican leaders tried to exclude blacks from party organizations in order to create a "pure white" Republican institution, and President Theodore Roosevelt reprimanded them.
President Theodore Roosevelt
After the Spanish-American War, the scope of administrative functions in the United States expanded rapidly. Beginning in the 1880s, the scientific functions of the U.S. executive branch were continuously extended, resulting in an increase in workload and the U.S. government having to create new positions. In 1880, the number of civil servants in the Confederation was one hundred and seventeen thousand, in 1890 it was sixteen thousand, in 1900 it was twenty-five-six thousand, and in 1910 it reached thirty-eighty-four thousand. Scientific reclamation began in arid or semi-arid areas of the southwest.
The area between the Missouri River and the Sierra Nevada Mountains has been considered uninhabitable since the mass migration to Pike Peak. Known as the "American Desert," the area is labeled in atlases as an arid region full of sand. Between 1825 and 1840, the area became a gathering place for Indian tribes. Under the influence of immigrants on Oregon and California, the true face of the Far West was revealed to more people. But it wasn't until the transcontinental railway was built that many residents were able to access the area. From 1889 to 1890, the "integrated" states joined the Federation. By this time, the Federation had taken in the entire northwest and half of the desert regions that preceded it. In 1896, Utah followed. After 1890, Arizona, New Mexico, and Oklahoma grew rapidly. In 1902, these districts applied to be established as states.
The U.S. population began to migrate to the Far West. This suggests that the vast land in the west can already be used for irrigation to develop agriculture. It is not enough to develop agriculture on the basis of individual strength alone, and United States land law does not encourage this practice. From the 1880s onwards, there was a demand for reclamation projects in the United States. In 1889, government engineers investigated where reservoirs could be built. In 1902, President Theodore Roosevelt worked with members of the Western Congress to pass the New Land Reclamation Act. Through the Act, revenues from the sale of land in the arid states became funds for the construction of large public irrigation projects. In the years that followed, the United States built dams, tunnels, and ditches as much as it invested in the New York State Railroad Tunnel and the Panama Canal.
President Theodore Roosevelt's active performance in dealing with foreign and administrative issues has earned him widespread and particular support. This is most evident in the West. At the same time, many critics do not believe that the president's personal influence can change the entire government and doubt the reliability of President Theodore Roosevelt's judgment. In personal arguments, it was always President Theodore Roosevelt himself who was aggressive. Professional politicians mixed disgust and awe for him, because he could always quickly establish personal relations with some of them. Under President William McKinley, state representatives in Congress controlled the appointment of federal officials in their states, so their individual positions were guaranteed; but under President Theodore Roosevelt, their control over appointments was no longer assured. On the legislative front, the grievances of members of Parliament are a serious obstacle to constructive legislation.