Abstract: The late Qing Dynasty and the beginning of the People's Republic of China were the initial period of intellectuals in the post-imperial examination era. Corresponding to the newborns, they are becoming a different kind of social group, and they are often separated and unable to be reunited. Intellectuals were cultivated in the academy, and what the people of the late Qing Dynasty saw was that the academy and the tide of learning were often accompanied, causing "teachers and students to become enemies every time"; and then from within the academy to the outside of the academy, what the people of the early min saw was often "all those who are slightly better among the people, all of them advocate politicalism and tease political feelings", and "each fights hard according to the banner". These accounts speak of the most dynamic of the intellectuals, and reflect their existence as a social group, which as a whole cannot be grouped together as a kind. Compared with the Keju scholars who are connected with more than 1,300 years of history, the intellectuals in the late Qing Dynasty were born from the imperial court' xingxue and education, and there is no historical process of natural cultivation behind them, so, in this regard, as far as cause and effect are concerned, this kind of group that cannot be gathered into a group of the same kind is precisely the knowledge group that is born because there is no natural cultivation and still does not know itself. Taking this as a starting point and then evolving into the changes of Chinese history for a long time, the nascent intellectual man can become a later intellectual man step by step in a more complete sense.
Keywords: intellectuals, Western studies, group, national capital
Compared with the scholars under the imperial examination system for more than 1,300 years, the intellectuals in the post-imperial examination era are already a distinctly different social group. However, the historical inertia left over from more than 1,300 years has made the intellectuals of the late Qing Dynasty and the beginning of the People's Republic often show their social image against the background of the Keju people.
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At the beginning of the 20th century, the school replaced the imperial examination, and then the school and the imperial examination metabolism, and the focus of education moved to the city; at the same time, the center of gravity of teaching quickly shifted to the new learning and new knowledge in the minds of the people at the time. At the end of the 19th century, Long Zhang, who pretended to be a new one, said in a letter: "Today's talents cannot be cultivated by those who study the old paper", and he believes more that "those who speak and write in The English Chinese" and "those who pass the letter to the scholars" can become talents. Compared with the "talents", "generalists", "generalists" and "translation talents" listed by Xue Fucheng in the 1870s, the main meanings between the front and back are roughly the same, but the temple of the first arguments, and most of the later theories are published as newspapers and magazines, which is already a consensus of common knowledge that dominates public opinion among the new school figures in the early 20th century. After the change of public opinion domination, "English Chinese words" and "Gezhi Zhuxue" became the main subjects in the academy. However, in the early years of the Republic of China, the world was familiar with the fact that what was later regarded as "in recent times, the young people of China have spent most of their lives and energy in foreign languages." If you specialize in learning, you will be transferred to the second place", and then sighed as "really regrettable also". The expectations that were once sent have changed into "really regrettable", indicating that the new learning and new knowledge have been turned into subjects, and the direct access to the talents is not the expected talent.
In contrast to the long-established relationship between the old Scholars and scholars, the "young people of recent China" who "spent half their lives in foreign languages" and could not rely on "specialized learning" are obviously more like a kind of learning that is half learned and has not yet been completed. However, as far as the two are in one category, the party that comes from the new knowledge and new learning does not need to be long-term, and does not have the ambition to be long-term. Yan Fu said: "After the imperial examination was abolished," the ranks of the scholars "entered the ranks without a rank," so they "went abroad only to take a quick course, and returned to China to become more competitive."; they tried "seeing the east travel to Japan to return to China quickly, holding a diploma of three or four pawns, seeing the chief with great enthusiasm, and spitting on two or three hundred golds in the month", and "everyone was moved, thinking that it was solid to learn and get it.". Later, Wu Wenqi also said: Chinese studied in the academy, "those who read English want to be compradors of foreign banks; those who study economics want to be bank managers; those who study politics and law want to become officials." Therefore, "scholarship is nothing more than a means, and the purpose is something else." Once the end is achieved, the means are no longer needed." What they are talking about is that the new learning and new knowledge are transformed into Lilu, which is more moving than the time text of the Keju Examiner, so it is more moving. Thus further, with Chinese culture in particular, it is important to learn adults, so first re-study to think of yourself as a comparison, Zhang Taiyan said: Today's "public and private schools, only know how to teach students to learn, and together with people, but pay less attention." Students lack moral cultivation, spiritual training, and even only seek the path of profit, and they rarely take care of morality and morality, and An can hope that they will become great talents and shoulder great things." If you learn to think of yourself, you can introspect yourself, so "the people at the bottom of the imperial examination era probably know that their own knowledge is insufficient, and now the bottom students in the school almost have a complacent attitude, which is why the imperial examination still produces a few talents, and the school does not produce talents." Kang Youwei said: "In the past, those who tried to be righteous in the past" and scholars from it "will do their best, but they still know that they are ashamed, but now those who study the scriptures and righteousness are easy to become people who study the law", so "every day they fight for rights, but they do not have the moral heart". In the same sense, Liang Qichao said: "Most of the students in our country are originally cold and vegetarian, but in recent years, the wind of stupidity has flourished. The most distressing of the poor is the youth who is studying, who indulges in extravagance and indulgence, which hurts both his virtue and his studies. The opposite of this change in the atmosphere that comes with learning is that inside and outside the academy "those who show off their new learning are all over the country, and there is no one who is loyal to learning." Learn the word of death, and today it is deserved." What they see is the day when the new learning and new knowledge are pushed by the first life, and the people in the academy who are directly infected by the new learning and new knowledge are too thin in their sense of morality and mechanics, so that the adults who have become adults cannot match the old readers. These texts, with what they have seen and seen in their respective narratives, generally depict the group image of the new generation of intellectuals after the replacement of the imperial examination by the academy, and the attention between them has shifted from the initial purpose of rejuvenating learning and cultivating talents to the personality of the new generation of intellectuals. These comments, which are aimed at new intellectuals, show that although the imperial examination has been suspended, the image of the reader formed under the examination system for more than 1,300 years is still the image that the reader should have in the minds of the Chinese today. Therefore, although the new intellectuals are of the same category out of the academy, when it comes to people and things, it is easy to be placed in the middle of two contrasts, and the length of the other is shorter than this.
Compared with this general depiction of personality, Yun Daiyingyu in the later period of the New Culture Movement said, "Chinese education is no longer developed, why is it so untalented, and even many things in a country cannot be done?" China has also run schools for twenty or thirty years, and it is always necessary to achieve thousands and hundreds of people, and when these people finish their studies, they go to where to ask questions, and then from "social transformation" to "educational transformation", they are also looking at new intellectuals from schools, and the vision is obviously greater:
Many "blindly upward" educators, when they hear that education is noble, pure, and fundamentally transforming society, claim to be the ones entrusted to them by society. However, their education, in addition to squandering the money in society, making houses, and buying instruments, the low can only give students some vague influence of knowledge, and the high can only cultivate a cowardly and supple character for students.
Then there are this "blindly upward" "educators" who produce students of the same kind one after another:
I have seen many good students who, after they have died, not only have no beneficial contribution to society, but also have no place to eat for themselves. Only because when they were in school, they were completely ignorant of the social situation and the actual needs of a certain profession. Generally speaking, teachers directly or indirectly circulate foreign book lecture notes, and the content is somewhat inconsistent with China's situation. These teachers, because they are more learned and have a high status, think that they do not have to, and they do not bother to examine the actual situation in China. Therefore, it is falsely said that this kind of foreign students of the foreign school had to work as slaves in the factory bank run by foreigners at least a few Chinese after they died.
After "twenty or thirty years" of teaching and learning, the indigestible and inaccessible and inceptible "peddlers" during the Chinese period of "teaching and receiving" by the late Qing Dynasty have made this kind of thing from foreign "book lecture notes" take shape in the process of transfer and acceptance, and often cannot be combined with the "actual situation in China". The reason why "educators" are regarded as "blind upwards" is that they are self-reliant, all of whom are above foreign countries and China as the bottom, and the resulting former cuts off the latter's "complete ignorance of social conditions." Shi Ren once wrote an article entitled "Reincarnation Education", in which he said sharply: "Most of the content of these teachers is American politics, American economy, American railways, American commerce, The United States... United States...... They praised the United States and Mr. Dong Bao praised Yao, Shun, Yu, and Tang in general. Then the students "went to the United States after graduation to mix what M and what D, came back to draw gourds, and then bluffed later students." Later students then went abroad to dispense medicines according to the prescription; this cycle continued, and it was passed on endlessly, which was a kind of high-level reincarnation." This contradiction, which lies in the process of education, shows that the "negative city" of the "children of the countryside" and then "entering the capital and going out of the ocean" are entangled in this contradiction layer by layer from the depth of the space at the same time as they go farther and farther from the space. In the meantime, people are taught, and the farther they go and the layers of entanglement become changed and recreated under the guidance of "blind upwards".
On the whole, rather than commenting on the personality and virtue of the people in the academy, Yun Daiying focuses more on illustrating that as a social group generated by education, the new intellectuals do not actually know Chinese society. In contrast to the alienation of the majority of people in society by the knowledgeable people attached to the new learning and new knowledge because they look down on the masses, this ignorance is the result of the inability of the foreign new learning and new knowledge itself to be internalized in Chinese society, so that the new knowledgeable person who is subject to learning involuntarily wanders outside the existing social situation under the guidance of this new learning and new knowledge. However, these people who are free from the current social situation are still a kind of actual social existence, and thus a social existence that is still affecting China, so the intellectuals produced in the historical changes of modern China are disconnected from the masses, the politics and ideology of the upper social level are disconnected from the economic structure of the lower social strata, the city and the countryside are disconnected, and the coastal and inland areas are directly related or indirectly related to it, and have become social forces inherent in the process of disconnection. In 1919, Li Dazhao wrote "Youth and the Countryside", which called for idealism and sought to fill the space left by this disconnection:
Oh young friends wandering in the city! You must know that there are many sins in the city, many happiness in the countryside; life in the city is almost the life of a ghost, and the activities in the countryside are all human activities; the air in the city is dirty, and the air in the countryside is clean. Why don't you pack your bags, settle your travel debts, and return them to your homeland?
He also predicted that "as long as the intellectual class joins the labor group, there will be light in the labor group; as long as the youth return to the countryside, then there will be hope for improvement in rural life." However, in light of this expectation, it is obvious that the wandering created by "blind upwards" has been incorporated into the process of history, and the "young friends" who are "wandering" in the city will not be easily recalled to the "countryside" by simple idealism.
<h1 class="pgc-h-arrow-right" data-track="60" > second, the ups and downs of the student tide and the fission of teacher-student ethics</h1>
These arguments appeared successively in the thirty years after the suspension of the imperial examination, on the one hand, they portrayed the liluization of new learning and new knowledge in the process of education, and on the other hand, they portrayed the separation between new learning and new knowledge and Chinese society. The interplay of the two is to make the intellectuals more and more distinct into a social group that is born of the rise of learning and is not a separate type. Compared with the 1,300-year-old Keju people, what people can see intuitively is that "in the commercial school system, under the classized style of study, a number of young people are gathered together, unrelated and even hostile to each other to live a life", and "educational magic is always not to fight for power outside the world, and to teach to blow the law snail". However, intellectuals who have become alienated from the public and have become a group of their own do not have enough affinity and identification with themselves to maintain each other and gather as "groups" in the overall sense. Then there were the groups of their own, and the "unsettling" that arose was first seen in the academy at that time. Among them, the most likely and often seen is the various academic trends that accompanied the emergence and formation of new intellectuals. Qian Jibo recounts that Zhang Shizhao, who studied at the Jiangnan Lushi Academy in his early years, said:
When the school was strict, it was respectful to the scholars; but it was inconvenient for the arrogant. At that time, after the great boycott of Nanyang Public School in Shanghai, Wu Jingheng of Yanghu Lake presided over the "Su Bao" and specially placed a column in the "Trends in Academic Circles", which was arbitrarily advocated, and morale was suddenly shaken, which swept the whole country. Chinese students take it for granted that they strike at school, and they respect themselves and advocate it. At that time, the well-known schools were all in trouble, and Lu Shi was also unavoidable. Shi Shizhao is able to write articles and is the leader of the school, so why should he be willing not to strike the class and show weakness to the schools. One day, he resolutely led more than thirty of his classmates to buy a boat in Shanghai, seeking to cooperate with the so-called patriotic society, and his heart went all the way. More than thirty people, the school's good also, this Cao once gone, Jinghua slightly exhausted.
When he waved his hand to the east, he not only "ignored the letter of persuasion" to Yu Mingzhen, who was the general office and "especially heavy Shizhao," but also "showed obstruction to Ma Jinxi, who "taught Chinese language and taught history at the same time," and also laughed at it, thinking that he was bold and resolute, roaring in the wind and clouds, swallowing the Yangtze River and blowing off the tide." When this "storm" ceased, "more than thirty people, more than half of whom lost their students, or died of inertia and inactivity." Therefore, "after middle age, Shi Zhao often has piercing regrets whenever he is Ma Jinxi's way." The process of "this Cao is gone, the jinghua is slightly exhausted" is a differentiated combination in the student group. Comparing the original "bitter remorse" with the original "he is willing not to strike the schools and show weakness to the schools" shows that this kind of differentiation and combination is easy to occur, and in this process, the will and blindness are often mixed.
In China at the end of the Qing Dynasty and the beginning of the People's Republic, this kind of thing that was related to the academic tide and the small group got out of the large group, and then rose and fell between the impermanence of the gathering and dispersion, was the life experience experience experienced by many new intellectuals. Huang Yuansheng, a minchu newspaperman, later wrote a "Confession", describing a career at Nanxun Public School at the end of the Qing Dynasty, saying:
At this time, the students were talking about revolutionary freedom and civil rights. The rest of the generation envied the trend of Nanyang Public School students making trouble, and was admired by the newspapers, both for telegrams, and the text said: "All the students of Nanxun Public School, congratulations to all nanyang public school students for getting rid of the suffering of the authoritarian school", a big book, published in the Chinese and foreign dailys, it is ridiculous. He also quarreled with the school for a small reason, and all of them went on strike, represented by Yu. Thinking about it so far, Yu Shi is a person who is active in this great sin. After the strike, students either went to the sea to play, or immediately went to Nanyang Public School to take the exam. At this time, the public school was completely official, and Yu was one of the candidates. In the past, the message to others was freed from despotism, but now they have shed the school of freedom and sought to enter the school of despotism, but they cannot get it. No doctrine, no ideal, no discipline, since the rest of the time cover is already enough.
Then, in summary, the tide of learning at that time rose up with the revival of learning and education, saying that "at this time, the student atmosphere is a major achievement in the strike of learning." Since the launch of Nanyang College, poor villages and remote areas have been affected, and several schools throughout the country have been destroyed. Spreading overseas, the number of Japanese students studying abroad will be counted every year, and finally the trend of international students will be banned." In his account, it is because of "revolutionary free civil rights", and then the boycott has the name and reason of anti-"autocracy", but at the same time because of the "admiration" of the newspaper, and then "with the name of strike as a great merit", it can be seen that the "revolutionary free civil rights" are only a kind of superficial emptiness for "students at this time", and there is neither certainty nor concrete content. Because there is no certainty and no concrete content, these words that have been introduced from the outside and shake for a while can be interpreted at will and used to create the attention they intended. Therefore, when this "total strike" of Nanxun Public School imitating Nanyang Public School suddenly rose up and finally dispersed in their own ways, the "revolutionary free civil rights" that were still unknown were not enough to connect and collect people's hearts. Although Huang Yuansheng's post-mortem recounting of this is deeply self-condemned, when "morale suddenly moved, swept the whole country" and "poor and remote areas, all affected", most of the new intellectuals formed in that generation were actually very close to this kind of "popularity" and "influence". Among later historical celebrities, Guo Moruo was "reprimanded" for "class strikes" in his elementary school years, "reprimanded" in his middle school years because of "storms"; Mao Dun middle school was "remembered" and later "removed" because of "making trouble with the school supervisors"; Cao Juren was "expelled" in his middle school years because he angrily scolded the house supervisors, and was also "demoralized and behaved badly"; Shu Xincheng's primary school years were "expelled from school" for "acting with pleasure by means of a momentary will" and "instigating a strike" In the middle school era of Hu Shi (Chinese public school), he was "not expelled from school, although he was not expelled"; in the middle school era of Ma Sulun (Yangzheng Shushu) was "expelled" from school because of conflicts with the school authorities, and so on.
Most of these "trends" have arisen from the dispute between teachers and students, and the resulting dispute between students and school authorities. In the meantime, there will be no distinction between right and wrong and between meritocracy and unworthiness, nor will it all be the distinction between right and wrong and the distinction between meritocracy and unsightlyness. Hu Shi, who had been involved in the trend of Chinese public schools, remembered this old incident more than twenty years later, and once it was drafted, it was first submitted to preside over the school affairs on that day, and because of this, wang Jingfang, who was first "attacked" in the "wave" and became the "main target", asked him to "criticize the revision". In his reply, Wang Jingfang recounted the beginning and end, saying that when he studied in Japan, he was also a "person who made a storm", compared with Hu Shi, who had already foreseen this taste. Then he said:
The most common mistake that human beings are prone to make is subjective prejudice. People often see people as enemies for life because of different footholds or different observation points. When you are in the public school, why don't you regard me as the most evil person? Now you have this article, not only have a lot of forgiveness for the authorities of the public school at that time, but also earnestly ask us to correct whether there was a factual error at that time. This kind of grace is really admirable.
The dialogue between the two is a fair reason for the past after more than twenty years, and on this day, they can be fair to each other, and it is because they are fighting for each other in that year, and they can still compete with each other for reason. As a reflection and contrast, it is Chen Jun, the editor of the Hanlin Academy who was sent to handle the Higher Industrial School in the last years of Guangxu, to say that the academic affairs are another kind of teacher-student dispute that is indignant in terms of examples:
This year, from the beginning of the first month to may, without examination, you should follow the rules and take the exam before the summer vacation. But the disciples of the beings, who care for their own friendship, want not to examine it, so that they can count the selfishness of others. Therefore, he said that the weather was hot and hindered hygiene, so please exempt from the exam. Because of the preparation of entering the examination every day, he has been dismissed, and the student and so on have not hindered hygiene, and have complied with the promise at the beginning. By the first day of May, the students were confused by different opinions, and still insisted on exemption from the examination, but the matter was in the examination, and they repeatedly failed to allow it, and the student withdrew, that is, he corrected the crowd to strike. Since then, people have gathered in the auditorium for several days, made speeches on stage, made noise and chaos, and forced the supervision to withdraw the edict of the examination, so that the summer vacation did not take the examination, and immediately dispersed from school.
Among them, the "contrarian" is especially seen in the "students who are unwilling to listen to, advocate the heads of the people, coerce all kinds of people, and even more order to join the association", and in the meeting, they divide the names of "rapporteur, picketer, officer, clerk, etc.", so that "within one hall, strictly guard against secret agents, like an enemy country". In this storm caused by the "selfishness of several people", the student side's pure use of robbery methods is obviously not a dispute between reasons. And once the students stir up a storm, the degree of their occurrence as "paradoxical" is more than this. In the diary of Chen Qingnian, who helped run schools in Hubei at the end of the Qing Dynasty, there is a section that says:
At the second time, Guan Cunyuan (son-in-law of Qu Yanshao of Jianghan Guandao) and Wang Chuanming (son of a certain person in the punishment of The Punishment Ofs) of the Ziqiang Academy made the people of the city drunk and beat them up indiscriminately, and they did not speak ill of the committee members, corrected the party and made trouble, and went through the class and the people, and dared to destroy the window sash of the guantang committee members, and the momentum was so fierce that no one could stop them.
The next day, he also "falsely accused Guan Tang (committee member) Zuo Zhiming of repeatedly cursing the people of Hubei on weekdays, acting arbitrarily, and Yun wanted to win the left and was willing to do it." Hide at home to avoid its fierce edge", and then the law of the land and reason can not be entangled. From this, he sighed and said: "The chinese academies, except for learning foreign languages, have nothing else to teach, and they have gradually weakened their senses and righteousness, and they have insulted others as their ability." Whether it is successful or not, what is the use of learning? In contrast to the student side that is in the midst of the storm, which is often "dismissed", "expelled", and "removed", the next two stories show more passive avoidance and helplessness of the school authorities in the face of the tide.
Compared with the Chinese public schools in Shanghai, the industrial schools in Beijing, and the self-improvement schools in Hubei, it is obvious that the trend of the late Qing Dynasty and the early Ming Dynasty began in the schools, and its causes and effects were various, and its rationale was also different. But this kind of "wanton propaganda" that has been published by the newspapers as public opinion has become exactly the same thing. Wu Zhihui, who was the initiator of "wanton propaganda", later became the president of the University of Lyon (Sino-French), and was "driven away by the coaxing of all beings" and "clothed ugly words". As a result, the advocates of the student tide have become the target of the expulsion of the student tide, and there is another humiliation like retribution in addition to the impact. He was "indignant" and "vowed not to run the school more after returning to China." Private residences gathered and discussed, and every stern rebuke of the young people of the generation was hopeless and hateful." However, "the new youth of the new China who hold the great court and make suggestions and news is also a great sanctity of the new China, one is praise and no depreciation, and there are books but no but no; and the system is made into a general practice: 'The students and the learners will win; the people of Judah will fight with the government, and the people will win.". By virtue of the long-term student riots in the world, it has not moved." As a representative figure at that time, this account, with its two attitudes that are completely different from "private residence" and "court", shows that although the "wanton advocacy" that rose up that day used words to create sound and light for students, the focus was actually not on the academic trend itself, but on the world with what it believed. However, the large-scale revitalization of learning in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Ming Dynasty and this kind of "wanton preaching" met in the established historical process, and the trend and school coexisted, so it was impossible not to make "teachers and students become enemies of each other" a topic in the eye-catching world and theory of the times. In this way, Ding Yunliang, who has existed for a long time in China, describes what he sees in his eyes as Chinese to the teacher, saying that "no country respects the position of teacher so much." Not only are teachers in life most deeply respected, but the name 'teacher' itself, in an abstract sense, is the object of worship. In some specific cases, the 'teacher' is associated with 'heaven, earth, king, and kin', and is engraved in the inscription, becoming one of the five main objects of reverence and enshrined with solemn ceremonies." As far as the intellectuals are concerned, teachers and students are in the same group. Therefore, taking these old situations that have left a deep impression on foreigners as a record, compared with the relationship that has existed and has existed in China for a long time, which is called the teacher's way based on ethical maintenance, it is obvious that in the relationship between the teacher and the student who became a teacher and a student at this time, the student looks at the teacher and the teacher looks at the student has become very different.
<h1 class="pgc-h-arrow-right" data-track="67" > third, symbiosis and social phase in strife</h1>
"Every teacher and student becomes a haters" has become a social phenomenon in the academic trend, and its deep historical content is the inner knot between teachers and students that is originally supported by ethics, because it cannot be rebuilt in the school where ethics has changed, so it cannot but break away from each other and become one side. And the tide of the wind and tide began in the academic circles, and the causes and effects of one scene and the other were various, the rational roads were various, the faces were various, and they were scattered between the north and the south, and the tides came and went and the crowds of people roared, and finally they all returned to the joy of exhaustion, and the horizontal and vertical scattered cannot be gathered into groups, and the vertical cannot be connected into lines. Therefore, on the one hand, from the end of the Qing Dynasty to the beginning of the People's Republic, the "day more than one day" that is lamented as the "wind tide" on the other hand is the dispersion, temporaryness, arbitrariness, variability, and small group nature shared by most of the trends, all of which are in their tides and in various colors, reflecting that the students who are the main body of the tide are separated from each other and become one side, and they themselves are also separated from each other and become one side. On the same day, due to the boycott of Nanyang Public School, there was a Patriotic Society. Zou Rong, who was studying in Japan, "accompanied Zhang Ji and five other people into the army student supervision house, "dozens of cheeks, holding scissors to break his braided hair", and then "sneaked back to Shanghai" and inhabited the Patriotic Society. "At that time, the students of the society learned English a lot, and the king said: 'The kings can be the ears of the people'. The community is angry and wants to beat them" is obviously seen as a person of the same genre, and their coexistence cannot be consistent, so that the beater is almost beaten. Therefore, although the new intellectuals from the academy "returned" from the masses in the self-phase as Zhang Taiyan said, as a social group that arose in the course of historical changes, they did not form the identity, unity, and cohesion that could be attributed to each other by class. Then there is "every teacher and student becomes a vendetta", while teachers and students are often in metabolism, the previous generation of students become the next generation of teachers and constitute a continuous regeneration and reconstruction, the resulting inheritance and inheritance on the one hand, will make the new intellectual people's multi-contention and mutual contention become the norm of the intellectual circles at that time.
Shen Yinmo later set up a title of "The Dispute Between the Old and the New", tracing the history of the New Culture Movement: "Mr. Taiyan's disciples can be divided into three factions: one is the conservative faction, and the representative is the disciple Huang Kan. The second faction is the Kaixin faction, represented by Qian Xuantong and Shen Jianshi, who call themselves Xuantong, and whose meaning is known. The third faction, the centrist faction, represented by Ma Yuzao, is taking the other two factions into disobedience and taking it for granted." This is their original appearance, "but when a large number of Taiyan's men poured into Peking University, they took a unanimous position against the old people under Yan Fu, believing that those old and decayed should give way and the position of the university hall should be occupied by us." I thought the same thing at the time." The previous paragraph deals with the distinction between the old and the new between the same door; the latter paragraph deals with the division gate as the boundary between the inside and outside. Therefore, although these narratives are named as "the dispute between the old and the new", the subordinate narratives in his pen portray the fact that the rise of internal and external disputes has drowned out the distinction between the old and the new. Taking the "three factions" under Zhang Taiyan's disciples who all have the experience of studying in Japan as belonging to the same category of new intellectuals, to oppose the "old people under Yan Fu", they use the "dispute between the old and the new" as a whole, although the names are not exactly the same, but they cannot be regarded as nothing. In contrast, in 1924 Shu Xincheng commented on the "educational circles" at that time, in which the fragmented factions of the competing factions had no clue and no control:
The factions in China's educational circles are divided by their claims and are divided by region: the Jiangsu and Zhejiang factions and the Two Lakes faction in Beijing, the Jiangnan and Jiangbei factions in Jiangsu, the eastern and western Zhejiang factions in Zhejiang, the eastern and western oceans in the whole country, the large and certain high in the eastern oceans, the United Kingdom, the United States, Germany, France, Belgium, and Italy in the West, the TC faction and the non-TC faction in the United States, and the large and certain high schools in China. Considering its content, most of it is for personal gain, and there are factions that are not of the same kind. The various factions have no common educational policy for the country other than their own interests, so as soon as the news of the return of the indemnity of a certain country comes out, many infighting will occur among the various factions in the educational circles.
Later, the "educational circles" and the Chinese society and politics of the early Ming Dynasty were particularly lamented that "the educational circles, which claim to be the rulers of the intellectual class, are unorganized and uncoordinated, and it is no wonder that politicians and warlords often use them as tools for political struggle." In terms of knowledge and numbers, politicians and warlords are not as good as the educational circles, and the educational circles are fish and meat, and the reason for the slaughter of others is that there is no organization, and even more so there is no large-scale organization." He deeply denigrated the "unorganized and ununited" "educational circles" of that day, and as far as the "educational circles" "self-styled to be the intellectual class's bull's ear holders", the "unorganized and unaligned" in his meaning was also portraying the entire "intellectual class". If, after the suspension of the imperial examination, the academy cultivates students, and then the students go out of the academy and practice outside the educational circles as new intellectuals, the boundary he sets to distinguish between the "educational circles" and "politicians and warlords" in his discourse is actually not enough to explain the limits of the distribution and flow of intellectuals.
If "politicians and warlords" refer to the political circles where the power is located, then more written records left at that time, by the political beings commenting on the new intellectuals, describe that after the suspension of the system of electing officials, the new intellectuals who emerged later, although they were different from the old Japanese scholars, were still following the inertia left behind for more than 1,300 years in the political circles where fame and fortune were located. Liu Chengyu said: "At the time of Guang and Xuan, Zhang and Yuan joined forces to enter Beijing and administer the government separately, and people thought that the political power was in the Han people; in fact, Zaitao was in charge of the army, King Su was in charge of civil affairs, Zai Ze was in charge of finance, Zai Zhen was in charge of agriculture, industry and commerce, and Lun Beizi was in charge of the Senior Government. Zhang Zhidong often lamented to the disciples of Ezhong who were under his command the imminent death of the Qing Chamber, saying that the pro-nobles were in power, violating the ancestral precepts, moving to the reach of the people, and even willing to give it to the ears that could not be seen. At that time, instead of saying that the pro-nobles were in power, it was better to say that the flag gate was in power, and the Manchus dared to do this, and those who returned to China and studied abroad as officials had the ear to teach. Then he held up his big end, each with a description:
Since the founding of the Military Advisory Office, Tao and Xun have led the Navy and Army, relying on the Japanese returned students as their masterminds, and those from the Army and Naval Academy of the provinces have attached them. Although there were many students from the sea and land among the revolutionary elites, those who were in positions of great power at that time all came from the banner gate. The wind of racing, from Beijing to all provinces, upward and downward effects, it is not surprising. Other civilian courtiers, talking about new scholars, gathered at the gates of King Su and DuanFang, while those who were officials were admitted to the gates of the fathers and sons of King Xun and King Qing, and those who talked about constitutionalism tended to the door of Renbeizi; so-and-so also law everyone, so-and-so also financial science everyone, bullet crown celebration, almost do not know that there are shameful things in the world.
It is obvious that these new intellectuals from international students have returned to the "flag gate" after leaving the school, showing their attachment to power in "running", and also showing the transformation of knowledge into a means and the result of the political trend with "having to teach". Later, in the early years of the Republic of China, what people saw at that time was "young children, high-ranking vagrants, students, teachers, journalists, party lobbyists, and all the better of the people advocated politicalism, teased political feelings, and lived for the beetles and parasitics of society." As "students" among the "slightly better among the people" at this time, "teachers," "journalists," and "party lobbyists," they "all advocated politicalism," and their intention was to "tease political feelings." This unprecedented scene became a social phenomenon that was familiar to China in the early Ming Dynasty, and it was not only followed by the "running to the flag gate" and "having a way to teach" of "returning students abroad" in the late Qing Dynasty, but also explaining by the large number and scope of the number of people who came after them: The difference between the intellectuals and the keju people in the old days is different It lies in the fact that they are already outside the political power as a whole, and the individuals in it are still attaching themselves to power as a shortcut. Therefore, "all advocating politicalism" is, on the one hand, compared to "social lice" by the choice of individuals to group together, and on the other hand, "politicalism" and "provoking political feelings" as a secret technique, then the process of its involvement in politics can only begin from agitation and return to agitation; on the one hand, "the high hooligans of the whole country are equivalent to pigs and cattle that enter the market, and the small ones sell their skins and meat, and even leave no hair and bones"; on the other hand, "the slightly talented and intelligent people of the whole country, each raising its banner, and fighting hard" 。 In these accounts, "the slightly talented and intelligent men of the whole country" and the "high rogues of the whole country" refer to the same group of people who have tillered from the new intellectuals and who use politics to "live parasitically." In the meantime, from the "flags of each side" to the competition between the "banners" and the individuals who "inserted" themselves, they all showed fragmentation from beginning to end and fragmentation from top to bottom. When "all advocate politicalism" and "banners" can be clustered, but with the self-selling of "inserting bids into the market" as the path of attachment, a group of factions is easy to gather and disperse. In the midst of the impermanence of concentration and dispersion, there is only the existence of individuals, and there is no overall belonging as a social group. Compared with the "educational circles" that Shu Xincheng bitterly denigrated, this kind of "slightly better among the people" who are attached to politics and are different from each other is also in the "unorganized and ununited".
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From the easy upsurge of learning on the one side of the learning side to the "unorganized and ununited" of the teaching side, to the "all advocating politicalism" and "fighting each other according to the banner of each other" of the "slightly talented and intelligent people", we can see the mutual dispersion in the process of cultivating intellectuals and the mutual separation of the living state and activity state of intellectuals after they leave the school. Therefore, where the Chinese intellectuals were in the early Ming Dynasty, the most likely thing to see was the inability to identify between individuals and groups, and the dissent between individuals and individuals. In terms of cause and effect, the dispersion of "no organization and no unity" is essentially the consciousness of not seeing the group without common trust; the search for attachment of "running" and "parasitism" is essentially the independent consciousness of the group without belonging. However, dissent is derived from non-identification. Therefore, in terms of appearance, the new intellectuals produced in foreign schools and Chinese schools have replaced the status of the old Japanese scholars, but they have not formed an independent consciousness within themselves and have not formed a similar cohesion outside, which determines that they do not actually have this status. Qian Mu said: "The history of the country has changed from the Middle Tang Dynasty to the tang dynasty, and a king is isolated from the top, and cannot be separated from the aristocratic families of the ancients; the people are scattered in the world, and they cannot now be ruled by the small countries and widows of the European and Western states, and the public opinion is the law." And then the world is the world of the sons and men. The "great changes" under the Middle and Tang Dynasties were facilitated by the imperial examination system, so in this kind of "world of scholars and scholars" between "one king isolated from the top" and the scattered people of the people, the scholar was able to be a group of his own, and distinguished it from other populations with its obvious group characteristics, which shows that the imperial examination system not only produced scholars, but also gathered and organized scholars as a whole. With this self-contained group, when there is no center of gravity under the "great change", the people who raise their sons are actually placed in the center of gravity of Chinese society, thus being connected with the national fortune and the world fortune. Later, because of its connection with the national fortune and the world fortune, it is impossible not to take Liang Qichao's "solidarity with the country" as a group ethic. Even at the end of the Qing Dynasty, the Guangdong scholar Jian Chaoliang did not take the exam to become a scholar, but was in the midst of this ethics in the Shilin, and his self-description embraced, just like "the servant is not talented, there is no way to repay the country, Shu Ji read books to affirm the great righteousness, and si yi corporal's responsibility" as a matter of course. The "corporal's duty" of "solidarity with the country" comes from a scholar with no meritorious name, and empirically illustrates the actual existence and self-perpetuation of this ethical consciousness in the scholar group. However, "solidarity with the country" means "hugh" returns to it, and "qi" also returns to it, success returns to it, and defeat also returns to it. Therefore, the scholars who are connected with the national fortune and the world fortune are often placed in the ups and downs of the national fortune and the world fortune, and are blamed on the one hand and expected on the other. Qu Duizhi, who claimed to have experienced the "four important junctures of Jia Wu, Wu Shu, Gengzi, and Xinhai", said on the day of "dying old age" that he summarized the history of the late Qing Dynasty:
Since the Song Dynasty, China has been the politics of scholars. Scholar politics can be said to be misguided. But there are no scholars, and I don't know what kind of world it is today. That is to say, in the case of the Guangxu Dynasty, it is the scholar who destroys the self-inflicted damage, and it is also the scholar who causes uncertainty to the country due to the controversy. However, imagine how righteous and stern, and how angry and vigorous it is to criticize the Qingliu of the Guangxu Dynasty, to criticize the Tang Dynasty, to support the Gang Discipline, and to reject yu Zhen. Although the motives are not pure, although blunt words are not accepted, this kind of arrogance is something that people are afraid of. Therefore, the foundation of the country does not waver, and it depends on this. Although the power of the monarch is omnipotent, the persecution of villains is also omnipotent, and in the end, the public opinion of the scholar cannot be easily erased, and the identity of the scholar cannot be easily destroyed.
He wrote out the late Qing Dynasty scholar-doctors that he had intuitively seen, and used his words and deeds to explain clearly that since the scholar group had already occupied the center of gravity of the first life, the world was restless, and he could not fail to bear the responsibility of mistaken life; and he also concluded with his remark that there was no scholar and doctor, "I don't know what kind of world to be today", indicating that when the government and the opposition were shaking and the situation was in danger at times, this group could still work together to protect the "foundation of the country" and maintain "public opinion", so that the world did not completely lose its place. Therefore, although the character of the late Qing Dynasty scholar in Qu Du's eyes is uneven and not all cute, his narrative makes people very clear that the reason why the "national foundation" is "unshakable" and "public opinion" cannot be easily erased is still the group existence and overall will of the japanese scholars. In the late Qing Dynasty, there was only one difference between the Republic of China, but in comparison, the people's early intellectuals, who were called "the slightly better people in the people" and "the slightly talented and intelligent people in the whole country", were often in the laughter and anger of the people of the time, and could not see a little "anger" and "arrogance". They have become a social group of their own, but they do not see the independent consciousness inside and the cohesion of the same kind outside. Since there is no independent consciousness formed within, the intellectual man at that time is not enough to produce a conscious overall will; because the outside does not form a cohesive condensation of the same kind, the knowledge man at that time is not enough to form his own group. Then, taking individual consciousness as the basis and turning individual consciousness into a scattered existence became a regular state of this group in the written accounts of the late Qing Dynasty and the early Ming Dynasty.
Compared with the Keju scholars who are connected to more than 1,300 years of history, the intellectuals born in the late Qing Dynasty were born by the imperial court to use the power of the state to promote education and education, and there is no natural historical process behind them. Therefore, it is impossible to be a group of the same kind and form a group of its own, which is not cultivated by nature, but comes from a confusion that has not yet realized itself. Taking this confusion as the starting point and then evolving into the changes of Chinese history for a long time, the nascent intellectual man can become the later intellectual man step by step in a more complete sense.
Author: Yang Guoqiang, Professor, Simian Institute for Advanced Study of Humanities, East China Normal University
The original article was published in Tianjin Social Sciences, No. 5, 2021, and the annotations are omitted.
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