Pushkin (15 October 1799 – 10 February 1837) was a Russian writer and founder of modern Russian literature. His representative works include poems such as "Ode to Freedom", "To the Sea", "To Chadayev", "If Life Deceives You", poetic novels such as "Evgeny Onegin", novels "Captain's Daughter", "Queen of Spades" and so on.
Looking back at Pushkin's life, the reader will find that almost all of his problems are in the color of his skin. Although he has "blue" blood, he has a dark complexion. The kind of black of the Moors.
From his father, he inherited an ancient aristocratic surname dating back to the twelfth century, at the beginning of the Founding of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. Over the next six hundred years, many of his ancestors sided politically, one of whom was executed by Peter the Great and the other imprisoned by Catherine the Great.
His mother's side was of African descent. In a footnote to the poetic novel Yevgeny Onegin, he explains, "My great-grandfather was abducted from an African beach at the age of eight and taken to Constantinople. When the Russian envoys rescued him, they offered him as a gift to Peter the Great."
How did Pushkin's African ancestry influence his work and life? In this article, we will review push back the spiritual journey of Pushkin and his time through the narrative of the Chinese writer Li Wei.
This article is from Between Eternity: A History of Western Poetry Against Time, which has been published with the permission of the publishing house.
Between Eternity: A History of Western Poetry Against Time, by Li Wei and translated by Yuan Qiuting, Shanghai People's Publishing House, July 2020.
The original author | Li Wei
Excerpts | Qin Wuxian
The "African Face" that Broke into High Society: The Battle of Blood and Skin Color
The Tsar immediately fell in love with the child, whose skin was so dark and shining in the sun, treated him as if he were his own, and even took him to Paris for a first-class education. The boy also competed, did not live up to the expectations of his father, cold and slight, step by step, and finally became a famous general. Maybe doing something great is like probing for him. There was already extraordinary blood flowing in his body. He is said to be the youngest son of an African chieftain, probably from Cameroon or Possibly Chad, although Pushkin himself believes his ancestors came from Ethiopia.
For people of good nature, such a family background evokes pure curiosity. In the circle of intellectuals whose jealousy has always been higher than that of talent, Pushkin's life could only lead to hatred. Sure enough, an unpopular writer soon wrote an article about the sarcastic poet, changing the background to avoid slander:
According to rumors, a poet from Spanish America ... A descendant of a mestizo (the gender of a mestizo, I forget) begins to claim that his ancestors were a black prince. In the city's town hall, it was discovered that in ancient times there was a lawsuit between the captain and the deputy over the. Both the captain and the deputy claimed that the slaves were their own. The captain also argued that he had bought the slave with a bottle of rum. Who could have predicted that one day, a rioter would take the initiative to climb with the. What vanity!
Pushkin, who is known for his wit, naturally has the ability to return a for tat. But the topic of bloodline is not a joke in his opinion. One of his characters insisted: "Disrespect for ancestors is the beginning of barbarism and bad manners." There is no doubt that this expresses the poet's personal position. Pushkin was proud of his African ancestry and all the qualities it conferred on him. In the semi-fictional work The Moors of Peter the Great, he boastfully wrote that his great-grandfather's "looks, knowledge, and intellect attracted the attention of all in Paris." The ladies wanted to meet the 'Tsar's Negro' in their salons and to capture his heart."
However, such concerns are not without drawbacks:
The young black man was often seen as a miracle, surrounded by polite remarks and questions, and this curiosity, though wrapped in a veil of mercy, offended his self-esteem. The attention of women that ordinary men can't ask for not only can't make him happy, but also makes him feel bitter and resentful. He felt that in their eyes, he was nothing more than some rare animal, a special alien creature, who by chance had been transported to this world that was incompatible with him. He even jealous of the little people who had no one to pay attention to, and saw their obscurity as a kind of happiness.
Pushkin in childhood.
Since Pushkin's great-grandfather died before the poet was born, and considering his statement in the footnote of Onegin that "those who deserve to be remembered, because of the lack of historical biographies, quickly disappear from people's memory" – it is not difficult to imagine that the poet should reconstruct the years of his ancestors in Paris based on his own experiences in Russia. He himself is also in the spotlight, not only because of his fame, but also because he is also "some kind of rare animal." Take the account of one of his fans as evidenced by:
The ladies scattered, all eager for Pushkin's attention, so as soon as he entered the door, they all gathered around him. Everyone wanted Pushkin to talk to her, even if it was just one sentence. I was neither young nor beautiful and always shy, so I didn't make this scene. I stood silently to the sidelines, gazing at his African face from a distance. The face that showed his life and shone with intelligence.
His "African face" did make him particularly striking in Russia, though, strictly speaking, he inherited only one-eighth of his great-grandfather's genes. Their looks, even if there are similarities, are not too obvious. Could it be that these seemingly insignificant features made Pushkin's face difficult to capture, whether in words, paintings or sculptures?
Generally speaking, in the portrait of the poet, some of his external "defects" are whitewashed. For example, short stature, dirty and long nails. This is actually quite normal. Portraits are mostly better than those of me, otherwise no one would have hired a master to paint a portrait of himself.
What needs to be explained is why his characteristics have been either highlighted or downplayed all along. In the different portraits, his complexion is sometimes dark and sometimes fair. The facial features are also different, one like African, the other more European.
Considering that he is recognized as a national poet of Russia, it may not be surprising if his complexion changes repeatedly. Consider this question from a different perspective. If Li Bai were black, would he still occupy such an important position in the "Three Hundred Poems of Tang Dynasty"? I'm afraid he won't even have a chance to play. After all, a black man, no matter how talented he is, how good Chinese, cannot represent the highest point of Chinese culture – or is he fully qualified?
Portrait of Pushkin.
Rather than confronting this conundrum with a straight face—a pure hypothesis for Chinese readers, but an unavoidable fact for the Russians—making Pushkin look more like his countrymen is undoubtedly the easiest solution. To be honest, this practice is not unique to the Russians. In the Nordic countries, the image of Jesus is generally blonde. In South America, he was brown-haired and brown-eyed. Even if they are gods and ghosts, everyone still hopes that they will look like themselves.
Pushkin's situation is even more peculiar because those who knew him were also divided into disagreements about his appearance. Some insist that "there can be no uglier-looking man" than the poet: "He is a descendant of the African race, his complexion still retains the marks of his ancestors, and his eyes are still wild and uninhibited." It has also been argued that the poet "is not, as some people say." His complexion and hair were not dark at all, but he was white-skinned and curly chestnut." Are these people seeing the same person? Or were they blinded by their own prejudices and rejected him simply because he was of black descent, or were he a pillar of Russian literature in a hurry to assimilate him?
Only one thing, almost everyone who knows him well will agree. His grumpy temper — his "unbridled" personality — is also one of the legacies passed down to him by his ancestors. "In him," said one of his classmates, "the enthusiasm and sensibility of Africans in their blood is evident." ”
His "African blood," at this moment, was flowing out of his body at an alarming rate.
The bullet pierced his abdominal cavity and shattered the end of his vertebrae. The extremely cold weather slightly numbed his feelings, but the pain was still very intense. Ejection of the stomach is one of the most difficult traumas, especially when gastric juice penetrates into other organs and highly acidic components begin to damage everything that is touched.
When all the dust settles, the rich and powerful will think that all the trouble is the self-inflicted wound of the unsound poet. The duel took place entirely at his instigation: Pushkin made his opponent intolerable.
Pushkin in a duel.
Since it was the poet who longed for a duel, he naturally signed the name of the duel condition book drafted by the "deputies" of the two sides, and agreed to everything without even looking at it
(According to custom, each fighter has an assistant to ensure the fairness of the duel and to help with the aftermath)
。 The conditions set by the two deputies were almost inevitable: if there were no "results" after the shooting of both sides, the whole process would have to be restarted.
Someone else would have worried about the impending duel. For Pushkin, who has experienced many battles, it is just a small matter. Even if he exuded any emotion at the last moment, it was mere impatience. He kept urging his deputy to load the bullets as soon as possible. He wanted to put an end to it all sooner, and then hurry home for dinner, maybe take another shower, and go on living as Russia's greatest poet.
The Alchemist of Language: Pushkin's New Literary Language
This is not to say that Pushkin lacked patience
(In another letter, he insisted: "I write for myself, but I publish for money, not at all to win a woman's smile.") ”）
That's not to say he doesn't need to polish it repeatedly
(His manuscript is covered with dense traces of revisions.)
。 But his work is always catchy. Reading his words is like reading the name of his sweetheart, pleasant to the ear, relaxed and natural. Pushkin had the ability to combine words into music. This is why he is regarded as the founder of Russian literature. Not because there were no great writers before him, but because on his own he made Russian literature the climate overnight.
For twenty-first-century readers, such a statement is nothing short of a fantasy. How many cultures have as rich literary traditions as Russia? In the second half of the nineteenth century, the Russian novel dwarfed works in other languages; at the beginning of the twentieth century, its poetry overshadowed the achievements of other countries. Before Pushkin, however— before the nineteenth century — the term "Russian literature" was almost a paradox.
Pushkin reading poetry.
"We have neither literature nor good books." Pushkin asserted this in his early twenties. Although it sounds a bit pretentious, many people agree with his prejudice. The literary hero Karamzin, who preceded him a generation ago
（Nikolay Karamzin）
He wrote an influential article entitled "Why are Russian writers like the morning star?" 》。 If Karamzin's solution —imitating European writers and drawing on the witty conversations of high-society ladies in the salon —seems too superficial, even shameful, at least he is willing to confront it.
Cultural weaknesses have led to Russia being shut out of the European elite. It is said that in the sixteenth century, Charles V, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, teased: "I speak to God in Spanish, I speak to women in Italian, I speak to men in French, and I speak to my horse in German." ”
There are several versions of this playful passage, which has been circulated in many European countries. In almost all versions, the German language is derogatory, perhaps because of its harsh consonants and low laryngeal sounds, which are inevitably tasteless to the layman. In contrast, italian has a silky tone, as beautiful as singing, and is often called the language of love, so it is suitable for speaking to women. French, as the lingua franca of the European court at the time, was naturally the language of diplomacy and was therefore suitable for conversation between men. As for Spanish, Charles V named it the Word of God, not only because of his own Spanish ancestry, but also as a tribute to the Spanish Inquisition. During his time in power, the inquisition aimed at eliminating heresy was in full swing.
However, neither the passages of Charles V nor the other versions mention the Russian language; it is not even qualified to communicate with the beasts. The reason is simple. Before the nineteenth century, European intellectuals did not learn Russian. Even educated Russians find it unconventional and noble. This explains why the Russian aristocracy of the time communicated in French. This is why Pushkin himself learned French before he began to contact The Russian language. In fact, throughout his life, French was his communicative language. He chatted with high society people in French and chased women in French. More importantly, it was through the French translation that he became acquainted with Shakespeare and Goethe.
Pushkin in creation.
His reliance on foreign languages was all the more astonishing: he created a new literary language for his homeland, a mixture of two almost incompatible language systems used by Russians at the time— the Russian dialect and the church Slavic. Although dialect is the daily language of ordinary people, it is considered vulgar and vulgar and not suitable for writing. As a result, the literati were left with the option of ecclesiastical Slavic language, the ceremonial language of the Russian Orthodox Church. Because it records scripture, nature does not change over time; its grammar and vocabulary are fixed at the time the text is written. That's why it's extra heavy — it's dragged down by a lot of archaic language and obscure expressions. Nevertheless, the Russian poets and writers of the seventeenth century were reluctant to give it up. Pushkin's greatest innovation was his blending of dexterous, modern "Mandarin" with pure, dignified religious language. This all-encompassing and harmonious new style has been used by Russian-speaking writers to this day.
By doing so alone, Pushkin was able to enjoy an important place in the history of Russian literature. But it is precisely because of his innovations that it is difficult for him to be respected in places where Russian is not spoken. Truth be told, his poems simply cannot be translated into other languages—even that language has two very different systems available, such as Mandarin and Vernacular in Chinese.
The biggest obstacle lies in Pushkin's delicate musicality. He seemed to find the right word every time: not only semantically, but also phonetically. Of course, how to reproduce the original musical effect of a poem in a foreign language is a difficult problem for all translators. Due to the special nature of the Russian language, it is even more difficult to re-"play" a piece of Pushkin. Compared to Italian, which has twenty-one letters, the Russian language has twelve more letters. This gives it more possibilities in terms of permutations and combinations. So, at least in theory, Russian words should be shorter than Italian ones. The opposite is true. This means that there are more – and more complex – sounds in the Russian language that need to be dealt with. If the "string quartet" is used to describe the musicality of the Italian language, in the hands of a master, the Russian language can be as magnificent as a symphony, and Pushkin is undoubtedly the premier composer of the Russian literary world.
Pushkin by the sea.
If the loss caused by the translation is irreparable, then what remains after the translation is also not good for Pushkin. Unlike most poets, he tended to deliberately avoid metaphors and metaphors. This is true of writing poetry, and it is also true of writing other types of works. He liked plain speech and straightforward expressions, rather than the flashy rhetoric and pretentious sentences that were popular at the time.
Consider Hugo, who is about the same age as Pushkin and writes poems and novels in one hand. But the common ground between the two seems to end there. Unlike Pushkin, Hugo liked complicated syntax. Reading his works is like watching a military parade, you can see rows and rows of adjectives, groups of metaphors, and you can fly from the left page to the right page. That's why, no matter what language it translates into, Hugo always leaves a thoughtful and imaginative impression on the reader. Pushkin didn't have such a good life. After translation, his writing has always become bland and boring
(This is actually Flaubert's evaluation of Pushkin's French translation.)
。 He blames it all on the fact that he uses too few metaphors, and this is precisely the part where poetry can absolutely flourish in exotic climates.
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