About author:Hui Wang, male, PhD candidate, School of Educational Science, Hunan Normal University.
Protagoras recounts the story of the young Socrates who first entered the stage of public education and proclaimed a new educational program by challenging Protagoras. Clarifying the educational dispute between Protagoras and Socrates can further explore the background and origin of Socratic educational ideas. Protagoras secularized the education of virtue, replacing inner virtue with "technical knowledge" and the wisdom and justice of domination with rhetoric and law. Socrates sought to reconstruct the pursuit of inner virtue, and his education was based on the assumptions of "whole knowledge" and "virtue is knowledge", and on the one hand he created a "myth of knowledge" for the citizens that favored "moderation", and on the other hand encouraged the wise to "bravely" love wisdom and pursue wisdom. Thus, Socrates' philosophical education is to integrate "temperance" and "bravery" through "whole knowledge", he reminds people that they are animals that pursue the good, but they must be restrained and brave to endure the doomed difficulties and failures in the pursuit of the good.
Protagoras is a dialogue between the young Socrates and protagoras, the famous sorcerer of the city of Athens, over the question of whether virtue is teachable. Laurence Lampert argues that Socrates is about 36 and Protagoras is about 65, the earliest chronological setting in Plato's dialogues, which indicates the initial moments of Socrates' rise to the stage of public education. [1] Plato arranged for Socrates to appear publicly in the victory over Protagoras as a "prelude to Socrates' own philosophical indoctrination",[2] not only because Protagoras was a representative of the secularization of public education in Greece, but also could have meant the hidden context in which Socrates' philosophical education took place. In other words, understanding and critiquing Protagoras' education as a sorcerer is crucial to understanding Socrates' philosophy of education. This article attempts to illustrate the educational controversy between Socrates and Protagoras through the textual analysis of protagoras.
I. The educational opening of Protagoras: rescuing the souls of young people
In Protagoras, Protagoras first appears as an "anti-traditional education". He challenged homer and other traditional poets, pointing out that these people were the true educators of Greece in the past, but they were no longer in time because they could not compete with the secular power of Greece. Protagoras said that today's "traditional educators", though deliberately deceiving the powerful (secular rulers) of the city-states and covering themselves up in the guise of poetry, fitness, music, medicine, etc., always end up revealing the truth and losing their honor; while he boasts of himself, openly admits to the public that he is a magician, and openly admits that he educates the world with wisdom, he never falls into danger. Protagoras's boasting meant that the education of the sorcerer would be distinguished from the traditional Greek education of mythology-poetry, and he reached a consensus and understanding of the secularization of education and the powerful rulers of the city-state.
Correspondingly, Socrates appears in the way of defending Homer at the beginning of Protagoras, and he compares himself to the protagonist of Homer's epic poem, "Odysseus", through three narratives. The first time was when a friend asked Socrates in the tone of spying on the lace news if he had just finished pursuing the young Alcabiyad, and Socrates replied, "So what?" ...... Homer said that the most attractive youthful energy is the first birth of the beard, and Alcabiyad is the right time, huh? Homer's quote comes from Odyssey, book X, line 279, when Odysseus's companions, tempted by the goddess Kirk, drank a poisonous drink, forgot their homeland, and were domesticated into pigs by the goddess Kirk, and Odysseus had to rescue his companions, and on the way he was stopped by the god Hermes, who was "transformed into the form of a young man, full of grace, and whose cheeks had just grown a beard", and taught him how to defeat Kirk. [3] In The Drink, Plato also borrows the mouth of Paulzanias to say that those who love "boys" because of noble love desires are "not so much boys as they are just beginning to germinate intellectually, but their beards have just sprouted." [4] Socrates used this to suggest to his companions that his pursuit of young people was in fact to rescue their newly developed intellect, which, if not rescued in time, would have been seduced by some "goddess of kirk" who seduced the young man and domesticated him into a pig.
The second time was a brave, excited and wanted to get ahead of the young man in Athens, Hippocrates, who intended to worship Protagoras as a teacher, and after hearing that Protagoras had come to the city of Athens, he hurriedly knocked on Socrates' door when "the sky was not yet dawn" and asked Socrates to be his introduction to the teacher. The young man's intellect had just sprouted, and he was thirsty for wisdom, but he was not yet able to recognize wisdom, and did not know that education was "risking the soul" and was a prudent undertaking. In the Odyssey, the inflexible Erpenore, a young companion of Odysseus, climbs drunk and drunk to the heights of the Palace of the Goddess Kirk for the sake of fresh air, and wakes up before dawn but forgets that he is on a high place, falling from the roof and dying.
The third time was when Socrates took Hippocrates to The House of Callias to meet Protagoras, and Socrates likened the meeting to Odysseus's trip to the underworld, both to recognize his "Odysseus-like" fate and to save the souls of his companions Hippocrates, Alcabiades and other young people. Socrates also likened Protagoras to Orpheus, a hero who had gone down to the underworld to save the soul of his wife Eurydice, but because of impatience and weakness, he failed to leave the exit of the underworld. Through the metaphors of the three correspondences of Protagoras and Odyssey, Socrates distinguishes himself from Protagoras and implies that he is the one who inherits and reconstructs Homeric education and wisdom, and that he is concerned with how to save the souls of the Athenians. As Gentiles of Athens, the Magicians did not really care about these things, they only cared about their professional teaching careers and money-making careers, so the Magicians may have been the destroyers of the traditional political etiquette of the city-state.
Protagoras was both a "kirk" who seduced young people and an "Orpheus" who was good at playing music (referring to speech) but had no substantial wisdom. In a conversation with Hippocrates, Socrates points out that one must first judge what kind of knowledge is good for the soul before learning wisdom. Just as only doctors and sports coaches can examine the food sold by vendors, so the wisdom sold by the sorcerer needs to be tested by those who truly understand wisdom, and Socrates is the "doctor of the soul" who examines the knowledge sold by Protagoras. Socrates secretly stole Protagoras' right to educate Hippocrates because Socrates wanted to rescue and guide the young people of Athens by protecting and guiding their souls; Socrates needed to prove his ability in dialogue with Protagoras to truly gain this educational power.
Virtue as a skill: the education of Protagoras
According to Larsho, Protagoras was the first intellectual, who paid for education and set up debates, and he taught the art of rhetoric to others. [5] According to Aristotle's division of Rhetoric, rhetorical techniques in the city of Athens were mainly used in judicial speeches in the courts, political speeches at citizens' assemblies, and presentations at ceremonies. [6] The consequence of the flourishing of this technique is that it is detached from its (statement) object, and thus only to make the speech more powerful. [7] This phenomenon may lead further to a philosophy of language—the essence of language (and even politics/justice) is force, thus departing from the more primitive meaning of logos (which can be translated as "Taoism"), a philosophy that we are no stranger to today. The three intellectuals protagoras, Protagoras, Prodico, and Hippias, all based on this historical background, developed different philosophical ideas based on their respective personalities. Prodico wanted to get the wording right through logos, and Hippias focused on formal and erudite writing,[8] compared to Protagoras's philosophy, which was more complex and secretive. This article will explain the relevance of Protagoras' philosophical and educational ideas through a textual analysis of Protagoras' speeches.
In order to defend his educational ideals in front of Socrates and Hippocrates, Protagoras gave a long speech. This passage of speech can be divided into two parts: "mythology" and "reasoning". Myths were an important way for the Greeks to carry out education, and Protagoras told the myth of how the gods gave gifts to humans and helped them form city-states (see Table 1). Protagoras knew how to fabricate myths to disguise the authority of the gods while concealing his true views; but he did not understand that myths are myths because they speak of the Supreme Being and the relationship between man and the Supreme Being. Seth Benardete notes that the gifts given by Prometheus in protagoras mythology made each person completely technical, with the result that people were self-sufficient and separated from each other. [9] Thus, people live together not because of some natural necessity or the imagination of the gods, but only for the sake of gaining more power. The true protagonist of the protagoras myth is Zeus, whose gift to man is "justice" and "shame" (to be precise, the concepts of "justice" and "shame"), which makes it necessary for citizens to declare their own justice and make themselves appear righteous in order to avoid ridicule, condemnation, punishment, and even killing; at the same time, citizens must also serve as "judges" who monitor and correct the words and deeds of others, and jointly uphold this justice.
The fundamental purpose of Zeus's two gifts was to provide an conceptual basis for the authority of the legal rule of the city-state. In Protagoras' education system, law occupies a central position, and "the political virtue of citizens actually comes from the legislation of the city-state,...... (The law) to align citizens with 'good' virtues."] [10] Thus, to obey the law is to make oneself appear righteous, and the "Hermes" who pronounces the law is a metaphor for the sorcerer. But, like mythology, Protagoras had no intention of discussing what the core of the law was, he was concerned that the law could maintain sufficient deterrence over citizens, and that the domestication of the law into man was possible as long as a rational person knew how to live together and not to be harmed and to follow the law. Through the mutual support of the two authorities of myth and law, protagoras "proved" that civic virtue can be educated.
Protagoras then discusses private education through "reasoning." Protagoras enumerates a sequence of education from homeschooling to city-state education (see Table 2), in which the second stage of education is carried out by private teachers (intellectuals), and receiving this part of education requires certain economic conditions, so it is the key to distinguishing the education of the wise people at the upper class (the future city-state rulers) and the general citizen education.
In the private teacher education stage, the most core educational content is poetry and music. Protagoras uses the cultivation and physical exercise of poetry to cultivate the rhythm of words and deeds and soul rhythms of his students, and on the other hand, he teaches students how to imitate, screen, and criticize poetry (this also corresponds to Protagoras's discussion of Simonides's poetry). Just as the education of the family by means of compulsory discipline and admonition was the preparatory stage for the legal education of the city-state, the education of poetry was also the preparatory stage for the education of rhetoric. Protagoras used the art of blowing pipes as a metaphor for political skill, he implied that the city-state was essentially a city-state of "blowing pipes" (words), that the justice of the city-state was "spoken out", and in his view, the core of the governance of the city-state was "rhetoric", and the good ruler was like a person who was good at blowing the pipe, and the education and rule of the city-state depended on nothing else, but on how the performers (rulers and educators) persuaded the citizens through powerful playing (rhetoric) to maintain the legitimacy and compulsion of the laws of the city-state. Make people believe in the law and be willing to act according to the law.
By substituting obedience to the law for the virtues of common life, and replacing the wisdom of governing the city-state with rhetoric, the technical knowledge of Protagoras replaced the inner virtues of man and made possible the enlightened education of the sorcerer for all. But protagoras' educational picture is "mechanistic", and he imagines the city-state as a "whirlpool" city-state in which people influence, supervise and restrain each other to maintain a common life; while the citizens of the city-state are ghostly people, whose virtues and education lack something intrinsic and are maintained entirely by external forces. Rhetoric, as a powerful logo, provided the original source of strength for the moral education of the city-state. But the rulers and educators who were good at rhetoric did not understand what the "cause" of virtue was, or whether it was merely man's pursuit of strength. They merely knew how to use rhetoric to compile myths and poems, maintain legal and educational punishments, and thus tame citizens and discipline the city-state.
Third, the turn of education: "the identity of virtue" and the questioning of the nature of virtue
The questioning of the essential things of virtue is not only the protagoras, but also the key to Socrates' cross-examination in many of Plato's dialogues. In the dialogue of Protagoras, Socrates begins this question with the question of "whether the bases of virtue are the names of one thing or only the parts of a thing" (which is called the question of "the identity of virtue" in this article), which in fact constitutes an educational turn, that is, from a customary understanding of virtue to an essential understanding of virtue.
Protagoras was well versed in the customary understanding of virtue, and he himself was adept at applying it. His myth transforms Prometheus and Zeus into a benevolent, human god in order to please the citizens' faith and piety; he believes that justice is to seek good things, and that obeying the law is just because he convinces people that it will bring benefits and avoid disadvantages; moderation depends on being good at thinking and thus making thoughtful considerations; bravery, Protagoras, who at first said it was bold, and later changed his mouth to say that it was "born", but this is tantamount to saying that bravery is unteachable. Thus the virtue of bravery was banished from his education system. Protagoras implicitly belittled bravery, because bravery is often achieved in war, and the expression of bravery can easily drag the city-state back into a state of war inside or outside the city-state, which is in opposition to protagoras' domestication education. Protagoras' exile of the brave allowed him to maintain his education, but he also deprived virtue of the strength of bravery, and it may be able to cultivate a group of useless "good men" who are only promised. This hints at the irony of protagora's education system.
Through a cross-examination of Protagoras, Socrates proved that the virtues of piety, justice, temperance, bravery, and wisdom are either identical or contradictory rather than true. At the end of Protagoras, Socrates further states his purpose—to try to prove that everything that is useful is knowledge. That is to say, Socrates proposed the proposition that all virtues are unified in "knowledge"—that virtue is knowledge," which is the answer socrates came to after examining the nature of virtue (although he was not yet quite sure what "knowledge" was). This understanding of Socrates undermines common sense and changes all common sense understandings of virtue (see Table 3), with the aim of establishing a more reliable definition; while sophists spread traditional ideas because their students can take advantage of these things, and sorcerers are more destructive. ［11］
(The author argues that Protagoras equates "wisdom" or "knowledge" with "skill," which can be inferred from texts on the one hand, and supported by similar ideas in other research results.) For example, Ge Gong compares the two dialogues of Protagoras and Laax, and he mentions that "the knowledge [Wissen] referred to by Protagoras is undoubtedly technical knowledge"; Kahn mentioned that in the early Greeks, the terms knowledge and wisdom were often interchanged with skills and crafts, after all, to master a skill is to have knowledge in this area, and the distinction between them needs to be completed until Socrates. See Ge Gong: Plato and Political Reality, translated by Huang Ruicheng and Jiang Lan, East China Normal University Press, 2010, p. 146; Kahn: Virtue as Knowledge, in Liu Xiaofeng, ed., Who Will Educate the Teachers: "Protagora" Fa Wei, translated by Jiang Peng, Huaxia Publishing House, 2015 edition, p. 9. ）
In the proposition that "virtue is knowledge", Socrates attempted to propose more rigorous and abstract concepts of "virtue" and "knowledge" (i.e., whole knowledge) in order to answer what the nature of virtue really is and to solve the question of "virtue identity". Holistic knowledge is an imitation of "nature", which is self-rooted, and the origin of technical knowledge is not in itself. Similarly, in the Odyssey, the brave Odysseus is stopped by Hermes and given a grass called "Morus" so that he can resist the temptation of the goddess Kirk. So, is this "whole knowledge" the one Socrates was looking for, and could it guide the brave "Odysseus" and help him resist the temptation of "Kirk"? Socrates intended to experiment with Protagoras on the efficacy of this "Morus". Socrates will then prove that the method of education proposed under the concept of "whole knowledge" is superior to that of Protagoras. If he could prove this, he might be able to persuade Protagoras to join him in exploring what this "whole knowledge" really was.
Virtue as Knowledge: Socrates' Education
Through the interpretation of Simonides' poetry and pitacos' proverbs, Socrates shaped the educational tradition of the Spartans, who were very different from Protagoras, who loved wisdom, hid wisdom, and practiced private teachings, and the spartan implicit education was "to prevent those whose nature was not suitable from imitating wisdom... to protect the souls of the majority from the love of wisdom." [12] In this way, Socrates rebuked Protagoras, implying that he had openly declared the education of wisdom to be a manifestation of a lack of moderation. Socrates also criticizes Protagoras' confidence in technical knowledge, suggesting that technical knowledge is limited because: (1) having technical knowledge is also difficult to escape bad luck, just as sailors and croppers also depend on the weather; (2) technical knowledge cannot overcome man's fundamental limitations, just as doctors cannot overcome man's "eventual death" ;(3) technical knowledge itself does not equal true wisdom, just as external "rituals" do not equal inner "justice". In this way, Socrates implied that technical knowledge was not the ultimate solution to the problem of education. Next, Socrates, through a long speech, preached his educational program around "whole knowledge."
Socrates first rejected the public's concept of action based on the "pleasure principle." The public believes that "happiness" and "knowledge" are contradictory, and that acting according to knowledge and goodness means sacrificing happiness, so ordinary people often prefer to act according to happiness than according to knowledge. Protagoras acknowledged the "pleasure principle", arguing that to overcome the "pleasure principle" and achieve a common life in the city-state, it was necessary to rule and domesticate the public with the help of rhetorical deception and legal punishment. But Socrates proposed that knowledge and pleasure are not in conflict, and that acting according to knowledge can ensure the greatest happiness, because knowledge, as a "measure", can measure what is happy and what is painful; on the contrary, an "ignorant" person cannot distinguish between what is greater happiness, what is smaller happiness, what is greater pain, and what is less painful, so he will inevitably choose wrong, and he will inevitably live unhappily and unhappily. Therefore, if a person wants to pursue happiness and attain happiness, he must pursue knowledge and learn from wise people.
Tucker Landy notes: "In reducing virtue to skill, Socrates deliberately exaggerates the power of knowledge to deal with human things in order to stimulate a stronger desire for knowledge in the audience." [13] This exaggeration means that Socrates tried to shape a "myth of knowledge" through "universal measure" to correspond to protagoras' myth of Zeus, which told those who were not intelligent to learn from the wise, rather than blindly obeying the drive of desire, which reconciled the wise and the masses. Through this series of arguments, Socrates also transformed the concept of "moderation." In the past, people would think that moderation was thoughtful consideration and doing things against unhappiness, but now Socrates proposes that moderation is to listen to the calculation of knowledge, to be oriented towards greater happiness. Socrates also transformed the face of public education. Public education is all about convincing citizens of such a myth of knowledge and voluntarily receiving the education of the wise, which offers citizens the possibility of combining basic survival with higher virtues.
Socrates then shifted the topic to "bravery," which also transformed the idea of bravery. Before Protagoras said that to be brave is to do things in fear; socrates said that those who have knowledge of terrible things and good things are the bravest, and that being brave is the same as being unrestrained, and of course out of "ignorance." This means that a truly brave man is determined to pursue good and happy things according to knowledge, and at the same time to pursue knowledge itself, so that Socrates completes the conquest of courage by knowledge. In contrast to Protagoras, who had to push the brave out of his education system, Socrates went a step further to prove the superiority of his educational program. Han Chao astutely proposed: "This (brave) contradiction is an insoluble contradiction in Protagoras ethics, so Protagoras always tries to avoid it, and Socrates always tries to debunk it, which is the basic narrative dynamic throughout Protagoras." ”［14］
A comparison of Protagoras and Socrates' conception of education shows that Socrates' speeches have a certain symmetry in structure and content with Protagoras' previous discourses, and their views can be described as tit-for-tat (see Table 4). Socrates stated that "only virtue is knowledge, it is the most teachable", and then he invited Protagoras to shake his spirit and discuss together what this "virtue" of knowledge is. Socrates also hinted that this path of inquiry might be doomed to failure, since human beings may not be incapable of discovering this "virtue." This reminds us of the description of "Morus" in the Odyssey: "The gods called this grass Morus, and it is difficult for mortals with dead to dig it up, because the gods are omnipotent." [15] But Socrates still wanted to follow the example of Prometheus, who loved wisdom, saying that he had to "think through his whole life before he could get busy with all these things." Socrates taught Protagoras to be truly courageous—to pursue knowledge and good things with determination, whether or not that pursuit succeeds. This shows that man does not possess divine wisdom, and that the virtue of "belonging to man" lies in his ability to form an understanding of his own limitations and a courageous and unremitting pursuit of excellence through the wisdom of the gods.
The Unity of Temperance and Bravery: The Essence of Socratic Philosophical Education
Protagoras refused Socrates' invitation, so Socrates left the house of Carias, which is metaphorically known as the "underworld", and ended the visit to the "Odysseus" had a visit to the underworld. Protagoras in the underworld is like a "ghost", he has external rhetorical skills, and at the same time seems to be brave and restrained, but he does not understand what the inner virtue is, so his educational philosophy lacks the core of life. Protagoras' perfect wisdom was the knowledge of craftsmanship, which he stole from the gods, thus believing that all political and educational problems could be solved once and for all by law and rhetoric, but his education, like the poisonous drink of the goddess Kirk, made people quickly forget the "homeland" of the "originality". Protagoras represents the nihilistic crisis and fanatical superstition of the technological power of man by the Greeks at that time, and Martha C. Nussbaum mentions that in Athens in the late 5th century BC, people were more convinced of human power and social progress than any other era, often accompanied by the story of how human beings overcame luck and circumstances through technological progress and invention, and Protagora tells the story of this period. ［16］
In fact, the Athenians were not prescient about the dangers of superstitious craftsmanship. In Sophocles's Antigone, Antigone uses his death to revive Creon's recollection of the "finiteness of man" in order to counter his fanaticism for technical reason. He borrowed the first chorus of the song team to sing: "Although there are many strange things, none of them are more strange than people... [The song team sang the 8 skills of human beings (1) Navigation (2) Farming (3) Hunting (4) Taming of animals (5) Language (6) Thoughts (7) Customs (8) Building Houses]... He has a way to do anything, he has a way to do things in the future, and even he can try to avoid diseases that are difficult to cure, but he cannot avoid death. [17] The tragedy of Sophocles states that man's skill can never overcome man's finitude, which constitutes man's fragility and desire for beautiful and eternal things, and thus forms the intrinsic basis of the possibility of human virtue.
Today's technological developments remain the conundrum of the times, and at this point modernity and Greekness seem to maintain a certain commonality. Education is also, in its fundamental sense, a technical planning and control, a "skill" for shaping people according to certain established or flexible standards and procedures. Today's education is permeated with the logic of technology (people compare education to "assembly lines", "vocational training", schools to "factories", manpower as "resources") and technical products (including not only products as things, but also uniform education systems, normative knowledge and competence standards, quantitative student evaluations, etc.). In today's so-called "technological age", the task of evoking students' inner pursuit of virtue in education and carrying out technological criticism is probably more severe than in Athens, and it is necessary to continuously recall and question the nature of technology.
Odysseus hears his fate to Teresias in the underworld—he cannot enjoy long-term peace, and will surely wander aimlessly; socrates descends to the "underworld" to see his own destiny, his finiteness in the face of "whole knowledge", and, like Odysseus, to experience the wanderings of the world of thought, and this wandering of thought is Socrates's dialectical education. Dialectical education means loving wisdom wholeheartedly and pursuing perfection in virtue, but in the process one has to bear the dual fate of Epimetheus (inability to acquire wisdom) and Prometheus (love of wisdom), and the pain of alternating hope and disappointment. Therefore, the education of Socrates fundamentally says that man is an animal in the pursuit of beauty, but in the pursuit of beauty there is only eternal difficulty, so the true philosopher must have real "moderation" and "courage" in order to overcome the temptations of the world's desires and endure the Odysseus-like process of suffering. Socrates' philosophical education ("aizhi") is an imitation and "remembrance" of Odysseus's return to his hometown: starting with the pursuit of whole knowledge and ending with a reminder of man's finitude and ignorance, a process aimed at borrowing Pitacos in Protagoras that it is difficult to be a nobleman.
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