Why did Outer Mongolia become independent back then? This bane has been planted since the Qing Dynasty. The Mongols, as a nomadic people, once ruled the vast steppes. As the times changed, they had to submit to a strong central power. However, during the years under the rule of the Qing Dynasty, the fortunes of Outer Mongolia were turned upside down. What exactly causes their desire for independence? What is driving this process? This puzzling historical puzzle seems to contain a hidden bane. We need to go back to that turbulent era to explore the root of this tortuous journey in order to solve the doubts in our hearts. So, why did Outer Mongolia become independent, and what is the truth?
The origin and division of the Mongols
The Mongols are a long-standing nomadic people, and their ancestors originally lived in the vast steppes of northeastern China. More than 2,000 years ago, they were called "Donghu". At that time, the Donghu people lived between the white mountains and black waters, and lived a life of hunting and fishing.
However, the Huns, another nomadic tribe in the north, had already settled in the steppes of present-day Mongolia. The strength of the Xiongnu gradually grew, and their Shan Yu "Mao Dun Shan Yu" gathered an army of 300,000 people, and continued to expand their territory and expand to the east. In the end, the iron hooves of Mao Dunshan Yu set foot on Donghu's homeland.
Faced with the iron hoof invasion of a strong enemy, the Donghu people had to part ways. A group of people migrated westward and came to Xianbei Mountain, calling themselves "Xianbei people". The other group turned to the northeast and moved to Wuhuan Mountain, calling themselves "Wuhuan people".
In this way, the Donghu people, who originally had the same root and origin, fell apart under the baptism of war, laying the genes of the future division of the Mongols.
The wheels of time rolled forward, and during the Three Kingdoms period, Cao Cao encouraged the northern nomads to migrate to the Central Plains. The Xianbei people obeyed the call and went south to the Central Plains, but were sniped by Cao Cao's army and almost wiped out. The surviving Xianbei returned to their homeland and eventually re-emerged during the Western Jin Dynasty, establishing the Northern Wei Dynasty, which merged with the Han nation and became an important part of the Chinese nation.
However, the fate of the Wuhuan people was not so lucky. This tribe, which once had a "deep brotherly relationship" with the Xianbei people, was completely wiped out under Cao Cao's suppression and disappeared from the stage of history.
Although the Xianbei people went south, there were still some people who stuck to their roots in the north. Once again, they split into three forces: one migrated westward, occupied the Mongolian plateau, and developed into "Rouran"; One remained in the northeast of the homeland, bounded by the Xing'an Mountains, called "Murwei" in the north and "Khitan" in the south.
The Rouran people were later exterminated by the Turks, who in turn were exterminated by the Tang Dynasty. The Khitans took the opportunity to rise and unify the entire northern region and establish the Liao dynasty that spanned the Eurasian continent. At that time, the Khitan power reached its peak, ruling as far as the Altai Mountains, and even today's Russians are accustomed to calling Chinese "Khitan".
Under the rule of the Khitans, the Murwei people had a limited status and could only be the "little brother" of the Khitans. And this nomadic people, who once called themselves "Wuhuan people" and "Rouran", are destined to write a shining epic in the future - they are the later Mongols.
The rise and fall of the Great Mongol State and the division of the four khanates
The fate of the Mongols reached a major turning point in 1206. In this year, Genghis Khan, the leader of the Mongolian Qiyan tribe, gathered the forces of various tribes and established a unified "Great Mongolian State". Since then, the nomadic Mongols have embarked on the road of conquest and territorial expansion.
Although Genghis Khan was ambitious, his military expansion met with resistance in the north. He defeated the Western Xia in the south, suppressed the Jin State in the east, and opened the door to the Great Western Regions in the west, but failed to capture the enemy's heartland. Throughout Genghis Khan's life, the territory he really ruled was limited to the steppe and the vast area north of the steppe.
It was Genghis Khan's four sons who really made Mongolia look at the world and make it famous both inside and outside. They opened their frontiers in all directions and wrote different legends on their own journeys.
Batu, the son of Genghis Khan's eldest son, Jochi, led a large army on a second expedition westward. He not only conquered the Caucasus, but also established the "Golden Horde" on a long march. From the Eastern European Plain to Siberia, they all surrendered to the iron heel of Batu.
The second son, Ogedei, inherited the mantle of Genghis Khan and became the Great Khan. He launched the Third Western Expedition, led by his younger brother Hulegu. On the way, Ögedei died, and before Hulegu could return, he established the "Ilkhanate" in the area of present-day Iran and Afghanistan.
After the death of Ögedei, the struggle for the throne of the Khan quickly broke out. The eldest son, Guiyou, succeeded to the throne, but was soon replaced by another family, Möngke. Möngke became the new Great Khan and immediately launched the Fourth Western Expedition, again sending troops to the Caucasus. However, Möngke died during the journey, and his two sons, Kublai Khan and Ali Buge, fought for the throne of Khan.
After five years of infighting, Kublai Khan finally won and ascended the throne as Khan. However, by this time, the Mongol Empire had already existed in name only, and the four khanates had long since drifted apart, and their relationship with Kublai Khan's "Yuan Dynasty" was becoming increasingly estranged.
In 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang established the Ming Dynasty and sent Xu Da to the north to conquer Dadu. Emperor Yuan Shun was defeated and fled to the north, ending the Mongol rule in the Central Plains. They had no choice but to retreat to the steppe and resume their nomadic life.
In the vast steppe, the Mongols again split into two branches, east and west. The western part is known as "Warat" and is divided into four major tribes: Hoshut, Jungar, Dulbert, and Turgot. The eastern part was called "Tatar", and was later divided into two parts: Mo Nan and Mo Bei.
Among them, Mobei Mongolia, also known as "Khalkha Mongolia", is composed of three major tribes: Zasak, Chechnya, and Tushetu. Southern Mongolia includes the Korqin, Chahar, Tumut, Urat and other tribes. Among them, the Chahar tribe is regarded as the "golden family" and is in charge of the Mongolian heirloom jade seal.
In this way, the once unified Great Mongolia once again fell apart, and the future was uncertain. Their rule over the Central Plains can only be turned into a distant dream, buried forever in the dust of history.
The division of the Mongol position in the territory of the Qing Dynasty
With the rise of the Ming Dynasty, the dominance of the Mongols in the Central Plains ceased to exist. Returning to the grassland, under the rule of the Qing Dynasty, they once again experienced the fate of internal and external divisions.
At that time, the Qing Emperor divided the Mongols in his jurisdiction into two categories: "internal subordinates" and "outer vassals". The Inner Mongols refer to those Mongol tribes who lived within the territory of the Qing Dynasty and submitted to the Qing Dynasty. The Outer Mongols, on the other hand, referred to the nomadic people who lived outside the borders of the Qing Dynasty and did not submit to the imperial court.
Among the Inner Mongols, they can be divided into two camps: "Inner Zasak" and "Outer Zasak". Nezasak Mongols refer to the Mongolian tribes living near the Yellow River Valley, such as Chahar, Korqin, etc. The Waizasak Mongols are mainly distributed in the vast steppe between the Helan Mountains and the Great Khing'an Mountains, including many tribes such as Alatan, Zhuolig, and Qinghai.
These Nezasak Mongol tribes, although politically subordinate to the Qing Empire, retained a considerable degree of autonomy. They can manage their own internal affairs, choose their own leaders, and have their own armed forces. In the interior, they enjoyed the same status and rights as the Han Chinese. However, the Qing court imposed strict restrictions on their actions and activities.
In contrast, the situation of the Mongol tribes of Vauzasak was much more difficult. Living outside the territory of the Qing Dynasty, although nominally subject to the Qing Dynasty, they were in fact completely free-grazing and unfettered.
The Qing court was very vigilant against these Mongolian tribes in the "border" and always guarded against them from "plotting rebellion". As a result, severe repressive measures have been adopted to limit their range of activities and deprive them of their right to armed self-defence. Once the Waizasak Mongols crossed the border to graze or hunt, they were severely suppressed by the Qing army.
Such draconian restrictions, coupled with the unrestrained plundering of grassland resources by Han Chinese immigrants from the interior, led to the deterioration of the living conditions of the Mongols in Transzasack. They had to wander around, looking for new pastures, and even took the initiative to defect to the Tsarist forces in the northwest.
Seeing this, Tsarist Russia was happy to take advantage of the discontent of these Transzasak Mongols to carry out economic infiltration and ideological indoctrination against them. With the passage of time, the Mongols gradually became the "pawns" of Tsarist Russia in the northern Xinjiang region of China. This also laid the fuse for the future independence movement of Outer Mongolia.
The turmoil of the princes of Outer Mongolia and the germ of the independence movement
In the late 19th century, the reign of the Qing Dynasty began to be turbulent. The princes and nobles of Outer Mongolia also expressed their dissatisfaction with the high-pressure rule of the Qing Dynasty.
At that time, Outer Mongolia was rich in mineral resources and became the object of coveting by the Qing government. In order to exploit these resources, the Manchu government resorted to a series of heavy-handed tactics that deprived the Outer Mongolian nobility of their traditional privileges.
In 1891, Russian engineers discovered a large number of coal mines in Outer Mongolia. When the Qing government heard the news, it immediately sent troops to guard the coal mine and ordered that the coal mine be ceded to the imperial court without compensation. The Outer Mongolian aristocracy held a grudge against them, believing that it was a manifestation of the Qing Dynasty's wanton exploitation of them.
In 1900, the Eight-Nation Coalition invaded Beijing, and the Empress Dowager Cixi personally led the government and the opposition to flee to Xi'an. Some princes in Outer Mongolia believed in Buddhism and were deeply dissatisfied with the escape of the Empress Dowager Cixi, believing that it was an act of departure from Buddhism. They took the opportunity to refuse the Qing Dynasty's garrison to Outer Mongolia.
In 1906, the Qing government implemented the "New Deal" movement based on the Japanese proposal. The new policy demanded that the princes of Outer Mongolia abolish the old feudal privileges and implement militaristic rule. The Outer Mongolian aristocracy was extremely dissatisfied with this and began to brew a rebellion.
At this time, Russia also saw the opportunity and began to infiltrate into Outer Mongolia. In 1911, Russia promulgated the Provisional Regulations on Mongols in Siberia, recognizing the religious autonomy of Outer Mongolia. This is undoubtedly an olive branch to the princes of Outer Mongolia.
It was against this background of internal and external troubles that the Xinhai Revolution broke out in Wuchang, which shook China. The intellectuals of Outer Mongolia responded to the call of the revolution and called for the overthrow of the Manchu regime.
In December 1911, Mongolian monks and nobles gathered in the city of Derged in Kipchak to declare the "independence of Outer Mongolia" and establish itself as a "Mongolian palace" country. Subsequently, they elected their own first Mongol Khan, Khalmeren Wanggyal.
However, the independence movement was soon counterbalanced. The Qing Dynasty sent a large army to suppress it, and the nascent Mongol palace regime was defeated one after another. Eventually, the Mongols had to turn to Russia for help.
In 1915, Russia declared war on Germany, and Mongolia, as a vassal of Russia, also declared war on Germany. Taking advantage of the special situation in wartime, Russia immediately recognized the independent status of Mongolia. At this time, the Qing Dynasty had already existed in name only, and had no time to take care of Mongolian affairs.
In this way, under the influence of Leninist ideas, a group of Mongolian intellectuals began to secretly spread the theory of communist revolution in Outer Mongolia. The flame of the Outer Mongolian independence movement slowly burned in this barren land.
The full-scale outbreak of the Outer Mongolian independence movement
In 1919, the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia was victorious. The Russian regime began to export communist ideas to Mongolia in support of their independence movement.
In this year, the Mongolian Youth Party was founded with the support of Soviet Russia and began to carry out a wide propaganda campaign in Mongolia, calling on the people to oppose the "Mongolian palace regime" led by the old Mongolian princes.
In 1920, the Communist Party of Mongolia was formally established in Kulen. Subsequently, the Mongolian Red Army, in conjunction with the Soviet Russian Red Army, launched a massive military offensive and opened fire on the armed forces of the Mongol nobles and princes everywhere.
After a fierce battle, the Mongol Red Army finally captured the city of Kipchak Dergede, completely purging the remnants of the "Mongol Imperial Palace".
In 1921, the "Mongolian People's Republic" was proclaimed in Outer Mongolia, which was ruled by the Mongolian People's Party supported by Soviet Russia. Suzjar Zab, the leader of the independence movement, became the country's first head of government.
Immediately afterward, the People's Government of Outer Mongolia announced the complete abolition of the feudal system, confiscated the land of the nobles and monasteries, and distributed it to farmers and herdsmen. The government also closed monasteries on a large scale and suppressed Buddhist forces in an effort to weaken its influence.
In 1924, the Russian government signed the Treaty of Alliance between the Mongolian People's Republic and Soviet Russia with Outer Mongolia, officially recognizing the independent status of Outer Mongolia. The treaty also stipulated that Soviet Russia would garrison Outer Mongolia for a long time to ensure its security.
After that, Soviet Russia continued to carry out socialist transformation in Outer Mongolia. The Mongolian economy was integrated into the planned economic system of the Soviet Union, and people's communes and state farms flourished throughout Outer Mongolia.
In 1939, the armed forces of Outer Mongolia also participated in the Normenhan incident with the Japanese army. Although the scale of the battle was limited, it was seen as a prelude to the Soviet-Japanese War, marking the beginning of Outer Mongolia as an important ally and forward position of the Soviet Union in the Far East.
In this way, with the strong support of the Soviet Union, the Outer Mongolia region completed the leap from a feudal monarchy to a people's republic and successfully gained independent status. The victory of this independence movement also marked that the nomadic Mongols had finally completely faded away from the "barbaric" mark of the past and entered the ranks of modern countries in the long historical evolution.
In the process, the people of Outer Mongolia paid a heavy price. Not only have they lost their traditional pastoralist way of life, but even their Buddhist faith has been severely attacked. The whole of Outer Mongolia, with the spread of socialist transformation, has completely lost the original appearance of the nomadic culture of the past.