1 Introduction
In the past two decades, the feminist trend of thought has flourished, the academic community has gradually increased the awareness of women's issues, and the study of women and social culture in the Ming and Qing dynasties has become prominent. European and American scholars Ellen Felicia Soulliere [1], Katherine Carlitz [2], and Dorothy Ko [3] and Japanese scholar Junichi Yamazaki [4] all deeply discussed the issues of women's writing, reading, and social culture in the Ming and Qing dynasties, while Wang Guangyi [5], Chen Baoliang [6], and Wang Meiying [7] in China studied the history of the distribution and reception of women's books in the Ming Dynasty from different perspectives such as book history and reading history.
The so-called women's education books refer to the Confucian classics that record the "way of women" in ancient China, record typical women's stories or educate women's speeches, and are mainly divided into biographies and admonitions, with Han Liu Xiang's "Biography of the Daughters" and Ban Zhao's "Women's Commandments" as the target. In the Ming Dynasty, not only did the imperial court have female teachers who overrode all dynasties, but the number of female teachers engraved by the people also ranked first in all dynasties. According to Taiwanese scholar Wang Guangyi, there were 74 types of female teachers in the Ming Dynasty [8]. On the basis of Wang Guangyi's statistical data, the author consulted 15 kinds of relevant historical materials to supplement them, and deleted a duplicate record of the "Internal Training" of Empress Xu of Renxiaowen in Wang's statistics, and recorded that there were 88 kinds of female teaching books in the Ming Dynasty. Because in terms of gender relations, the Ming Dynasty is typical and special, and it is of great research value, so the phenomenon of a large number of women's books suddenly being published has naturally attracted the attention of scholars. Previous studies on women's teaching in the Ming Dynasty have paid more attention to Empress Renxiaowen's "Internal Training", Wang Xiang's "Four Books of Women", and Lu Kun's "Boudoir Fan", etc., mainly focusing on the content of women's teaching books as the research object, and exploring the influence of the content of their books on women's groups and social culture.
Ming Qiuying's drawing "The Legend of the Daughters"
This paper studies the overall situation of women's books in the Ming Dynasty from the perspective of publishing and social culture, analyzes the internal reasons for their sudden increase, and draws on the theory of identity and Parsons's structural functionalism [9] to explore how the cultural behavior of women's book publishing provides the possibility for the identity construction of those responsible, and how it uses the maintenance function of the "cultural system" to deal with the problems brought about by the social, political and economic systems of the Ming Dynasty. In addition, the publication of the book has its own commercial aspect, as reflected in the research of the American scholar Katherine Carlitz [10], but it is beyond the scope of this article, so I will not repeat it.
2
Class Order: The Identity Construction of the Publishing Subjects of Women's Books
In the Ming Dynasty, engraving printing technology was at its peak, and the external environment of the book industry was relatively relaxed. At the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, there was an order that "books and utensils shall not be taxed", and the price of lettering was low and the production of paper was developed. Publishing books does not have to be sent to the government for approval as in the Song and Yuan dynasties, "books can be engraved privately", and engraving books is no longer an exclusive cultural behavior of the upper class. Therefore, the identity of the publishing subjects of women's books in the Ming Dynasty tended to diversify. In the process of compiling and engraving women's books, the publisher believes that the book itself is a cultural symbol, not based on the specific content of the book, the number of readers, or whether it is written by the publisher, but as a status symbol of the publishing subject.
2.1 To each his own person: the legitimacy of the identity of the publisher of official and nuns' books
As the authors of women's books, the members of the royal family are first and foremost bound by the legitimacy of their status as "in their position and in their own government". Empresses, empress dowagers, civil officials, and vassal kings all had their own legal status and normative expressions when compiling or engraveing books on women's teachings. If the identity is not legal when compiling and publishing the books of women's education, it can lead to trouble.
First of all, the female authors of the official nun books of the Ming Dynasty were mainly the queen and the queen mother, which was the privilege and symbol of the status of the mother of a country. Empress Chengzu Xu talked about the motivation for writing the book "Internal Training", and its preface said: "I only rely on the words of my Empress Gao's lessons, excellent in the past, enough to perpetuate the law for eternity, I am familiar with it and my heart hides it, it is in the winter of the second year of Yongle, using the teachings of Empress Gao to widen it, for the "Internal Training" 20 articles, to teach the palace. [11] It means that Empress Xu accepted the teachings of Empress Gao and became the mother of the new generation, connecting the past and the next, and demonstrating Empress Xu's legitimate status as a model for women in the world. According to Huang Yuji's "Bibliography of Qianqingtang", there are 88 stories of Zhenlie, which is also the content of the female religion written by Xu as the queen. Before Jiang was canonized as Princess Xing, he wrote 12 articles of "Women's Training", but it was not until Jiang was already "Our Lady of the Holy Empress Dowager" that it was published together with "The Biography of Empress Xiaoci Gao" and "Internal Training...... It is the teaching of the ancients, and the texts of "Zhou Nan" and "Zhao Nan" are the twelve articles of "Women's Training". [12] It shows that only after Chiang had a legal status could he be qualified to "promulgate the world" of the twelve articles of the "Women's Training". The Empress Dowager of Shengci Li, the author of a volume of "Nujian", is a book that has been lost. According to the records of the "Records of the Emperor Zhongzhi" and the "Records of the Ming Shen Sect", the celebrant may have engraved the "Nujian" and gave ten copies to Zhang Juzheng, the first assistant of the cabinet, and four copies of the second assistant Zhang Siwei. Bestow the female education books written by the relatives to the courtiers, indicating that the blessings of the mother of the country transcend the palace and reach the daughters of the subjects.
Ming She Yongning and other engraved copies of "Boudoir Fan"
On the contrary, Zheng Guifei's republication of Lu Kun's "Boudoir Fan" set off the well-known "demon book case". The "Demon Book Case" originated from the dispute over the country's capital. The book "Boudoir Fan" was written and published in the eighteenth year of Wanli in the Ming Dynasty (1590) when Lü Kun was appointed as an envoy to Shaanxi, and it was widely circulated among the people, and the eunuch Chen Ju was purchased from the market and presented to Zheng Guifei [13]. Zheng Guifei ordered someone to add the "queen concubine" category, the first article is Queen Ma, and the last article is Zheng Guifei herself, which was published by Zheng Chengen and engraved for Zheng's Baoshantang. Zheng modestly said in the preface that "Boudoir Fan" does not dare to compare with Renxiao's "Female Commandment" and Zhang Sheng's "Women's Training", which is intended to show that the book is not a demonstration of the world by usurping the identity of the Middle Palace, but only hopes that this book can be widely circulated. In the twenty-sixth year of Wanli (1598), someone wrote "Boudoir Fan Tu Shuo" under the name of Zhu Dongji, entitled "Discussion of Anxiety", which was intended to accuse Lü Kun of writing "Boudoir Fan" with the intention of helping Zheng Guifei abolish the longevity and establish the young[14]. At that time, there had been a 29-year-long "dispute over the national capital" in the palace, and although the "Demon Book Case" was a political reflection of the courtiers in the struggle between friends and the country, the opportunity and content of Zheng's "Boudoir Fan" were also controversial, just as Shen De said: "In the preface, the first dynasty's "Female Training" and "Female Commandment" are cited. [15] This shows that Zheng's publication of "Boudoir Fan" is quite inappropriate.
Second, the compilation of women's education books by civil officials was generally done by order of the emperor (the so-called edict), which represented the status of the royal family. As Dorothy Ko puts it, "The Confucian saying 'three subordinates' expresses an attempt to imply that at every stage of a woman's life, she is determined by the professional 'class division of labor' of the male patriarch." The 'three subordination' does not require individual women to obey men, but requires men and women to establish a subordinate relationship in the social division of labor. [16] Although there was a pattern of difference between the emperor and the queen, they were also a community. The expression of Empress Yifan also represents the identity construction of the royal family, so Ming Chengzu ordered Xie Jin and others to compile the "Biography of Ancient and Modern Women", and personally placed the preface to express the indispensable education of the boudoir, and the recorded deeds were enlightened by Tang Yu and down to the Yuan and Ming dynasties. In the fourth year of Yongle (1406), Empress Xu suggested that Chengzu put forward the "Biography of Empress Gao" of the "Biography of Ancient and Modern Women" in a single line, expressing that Taizu Empress Gao's Jiayan and Yixing surpassed her predecessors, and the implicit implication was to construct the legal identity of Taizu Zhu Yuanzhang and Empress Gao's Ma.
Finally, the feudal government published the women's books compiled by the empress, which was an implicit expression of being a courtier. The feudal system of the Ming Dynasty had a significant impact on the politics, economy, military, and culture of the Ming Dynasty. Due to the strict feudal ban system of the Ming Dynasty, most of the vassal kings devoted themselves to cultural and educational undertakings, and made great achievements in engraving books. After the Inner Government published Empress Ren Xiaowen's "Women's Training", it was awarded to Chu Fan. Chu Fan reprinted according to the line of Jiajing's inner mansion, and the last page of the plaque reads "Chu Mansion Zhengxin Academy republished". The Empress Dowager Zhangsheng Jiang's "Women's Training" was also awarded to the Chu Domain, and it was also republished, which was a cultural expression of the Chu Domain's respect for the mother of the country. The imperial court attached great importance to the education of the disciples of the clan and encouraged them to be elegant and good writers. Zhu Junge, the former feudal lord, wrote the "Elegy for the Emperor and Empress" and dedicated it to Sejong, indicating that the feudal dynasty respected culture and politics and obeyed the courtesies of the monarch and ministers, so he was given a golden silk [17].
2.2 Writing Glory: The Construction of the Identity of the Publisher of Books of the Private Sisters
The authors of the books on the private nuns' religion are mainly the descendants of the women or the descendants of the women, and the main intention of them in compiling and publishing the books on the women's religion is to construct a female identity that conforms to the Confucian etiquette. Such books are usually engraved by the male of the family to highlight the glory of the individual and the family.
Women elaborate on the code of conduct for women in accordance with the law of propriety, representing the unity of their words and deeds, and constructing the identity of exemplary women who uphold propriety and chastity. For example, Wang Xiang's mother Liu, wrote a volume of "Female Fan Jielu", which has eleven articles, including unification, virtue, motherhood, filial piety, chastity, loyalty, love, courtesy, wisdom, diligence and thrift, and talent. She said that she has studied all aspects of women's virtues in depth, not only to encourage self-reflection, but also to spread to others. Yu Yuan wrote "The Record of the Festival Women", which is a book, and the "Haining County Chronicles" records that Yu is a native of Wuyuan, returned to Haining Dong Mei, and later is a festival woman. The "Records of the Festival Women" may be a story of the festival women compiled by the Yu family, not only as their own code of conduct, but also as a way to promote it to the society. Most of the women's education books compiled by the women have never been published, and have not been widely circulated, only in the local chronicles of the art and literature or in the anthologies written by women, there are title records, such as Zheng's "Women's Teachings", Hu's "Nufan", Cao Sixue's "Ancient and Modern Women's Jian", Ge's "Zhao Excerpts", Zhu's "Collection of Training", etc., although the content of the books is no longer verifiable, but from the title of the book, they are all similar.
Men's depictions of women of the same race, when depicting women's martyrdom or filial piety, imply the education of their parents, the affection of the couple, and the influence of women on their offspring, as well as the glory of the entire family. Wen Huang's "Wen's Mother's Teachings" recorded Wen Huang's mother Lu's words of instruction to him, and the content was mainly about the preservation of the ancestral base, the maintenance of family morality, the admonition of women's morality and the education of children. Its preface reads: "The twelve volumes of the posthumous collection, the last of which is the preface, was taught by his mother and wife Lu. I believe that the family law is well-educated, and the creation of a virtuous mother is not false. [18] Yang Yingzhen wrote "Zhenyi Lu", extolling his mother's lifelong observance of filial piety, and the book contains a collection of documents awarded by the imperial court to the Li family, the main text of which records the deeds of the Li family, and is accompanied by a preface and text by the squire congratulating the Li family on winning the award, which is regarded as the glory of the Yang family. The "Double Excerpts" that praise Shao Jiong's mother Zhang and his uncle Wang in the Ming Wanli Dynasty, although not signed, should be written by the descendants of the Shao family. Zhang's "Bitter Festival" and Wang's "Dead Festival" are collectively known as a "double festival", which includes the official documents of the imperial court and the collection and sayings of the literati and Confucian scholars for the two wives of King Zhang. In addition, there are also some women's education books that have no verifiable content that are suspected of recording the Yixing of family or local women, such as Feng Zi's "Zhen Excerpts", Wu Guolun's "The Biography of the Four Martyrs", "The Biography of the Four Martyrs of Luzhou" by unknown authors, and Yang Junmin's "Collection of Henan Martyrs".
Publishers in the Ming Dynasty sought a balance between "profit-seeking" and "fame-chasing", and they often had two identities: they were the owners of the workshops who presided over the assembly and engraving of manuscripts, and the owners of bookshops who were responsible for running them. These two identities determined that the bookseller must be a "refined profiteer"[19]. Therefore, they must not only publish novels and current texts that are not in the limelight, but also publish some books that are beneficial to the religion but are easy to sell, and women's books happen to have both. They designed beautiful illustrations for women's books, such as Wang Daokun's "Biography of the Illustrated Daughters", which was drawn by the famous painter Qiu Shizhou[20], each with a print; Huang Shangwen's compilation of "Nu Fan Edition", illustrated by Cheng Qilong, has a vermilion ink overprint of Zilantang in the 30th year of Wanli in the Ming Dynasty (1602), which has been widely circulated, and was reprinted ten years after publication. Or adapt the biographies of the women into vivid and lively stories, such as Mao Kun and others' co-edited "Ancient and Modern Women's Biography Commentary" and Donghai Yulongzi's "The Romance of the Women", although the preface says that the purpose of compiling the book is to educate widely, but its vivid and interesting plot has attracted a considerable number of readers to buy.
3
Order of Behavior: The Cultural Function of Ming Dynasty Women's Books
The society after the middle of the Ming Dynasty was characterized by great changes [21]. Examining the social history of the Ming Dynasty, social mobility intensified in the middle and late periods, and the traditional Confucian ritual system was destroyed, which can be described as "Shishu dared to commit crimes, and became chaotic"[22], and women's behavior also greatly changed the traditional etiquette and law. This drastic change in social atmosphere is mainly rooted in the development of the commodity economy and the relaxation of political culture. The problems that arise in the "economic system" and the "political system" are clearly expressed in the "social system". Rulers and thinkers generally felt the traditional Confucian ethics wavering, and the apologists eagerly compiled and published books on women's teachings and adjusted the "cultural system" in an attempt to save the edifice. Not only did they believe that women's books could correct women's morals, but they could also inspire decadent scholars and doctors to follow the example of women's spirit.
3.1 Exhortation to women: "Eyes Downward" and "Valuing Chastity"
The purpose of the women's education book is to establish a code of female behavior that conforms to Confucian etiquette. The women's education books compiled and published by the contemporaries reflect the compiler's sense of distress based on the present in order to cope with the violent social and cultural turmoil of the Ming Dynasty. The cultural adjustment of women's books includes the diversification of social class components that include women's stories, the whitening of language and writing, and the extremeization of chastity concepts.
First, women's stories are socially diverse. Since the fall of the Song Dynasty, the "Biography of the Daughters" began to emphasize the friendship of "women", and the "Biography of the Daughters" of the Ming Dynasty praised the field space of lower-class women to expand more tendencies. Huang Xizhou's "Ten Episodes of Boudoir Fan" is a female character from the concubine to the Shishu. The biographies of women in the Ming Dynasty supplemented by the Biography of the Girls of the Drawing Dynasty are also mostly civilian women. Xu Youzhen's "Ancient and Modern Zhenlie Weifeng Shi" of the "Ordinary Cases" says: "Whoever kills generously, regardless of filial piety and righteous indignation, but who must die in a moment's time, each of them will take out a few words and include their essentials. [23] As long as there is a woman who has a martyrdom, whether a concubine or a prostitute, she can be included in the legend.
Secondly, the language of women's books is white. Lu Desheng's "Women's Language" is four words and one sentence, the text is simple, you can learn it at a young age, and it is catchy and easy to memorize. Chen Hongmou, a Qing man, praised and said: "His words seem shallow, his meaning is profound, and the importance of his training is not more than this." Whoever is a woman, a child, and accustomed to its words, long and through its meaning, always tearing, everything imitates, and the virtue of women can be complete, although it has been a lifetime. [24] Zhao Nanxing's "Notes on the Daughter's Sutra" is the same rhyme as "The Words of the Daughter", supplemented by phonetic interpretation, the first discussion of the four virtues, and the second is filial piety to parents, respect for brothers and sisters-in-law, cherish rice and noodles, fine five meals, do not be jealous, keep the boudoir and other 20 rules, which are obviously close to the female norms of the lives of the lower classes. In addition, there are also some scholars who write women's education books for their relatives to exhort their words and deeds, and the language is simple and easy to understand, such as Lu Qi's "Bride's Spectrum" as a gift for marrying a daughter, and there are 25 articles, which are respectively "do it", "get happy", "sound", "color", "entertain guests", etc., and the language is very life-like.
There are two main reasons for the above two kinds of cultural adjustment: first, from Zhengde to the middle of the Wanli period (1506-1602), humanist thinking gradually flourished, and at that time, talented women became celebrities, and the content of writing, reading, and communication became more extensive. For example, Wang Xiuwei of Wuzhong, who was famous for his poetry in the late Ming Dynasty, traveled with famous literati Chen Jiru, Zhong Hao, and Tan Yuanchun, and Tan Yuanchun commented on his poems as "There are alleys, pavilions, and Taos, ethereal and near, and they are absolutely similar to their people" [25]. Tan Yuanchun once visited Wang's residence and wrote "Poems of Wang Xiuwei Villa", calling Wang his "female companion". Changshu Liu is like this, known for his good poems, has a collection of essays, and Cheng Mengyang and others have paid to sing his works; The second is the development of the commodity economy. There are a large number of "three aunts and six women" among the people, such as a poem in the sixth chapter of the novel "Zen Zhenyi History", which shows the power of the three aunts and six women: "The old woman can speak short and long, which causes disasters to cause Xiao Wall." If you listen to the words of the three aunts in the boudoir, Zhenlie can be called bad"[26], which shows that the bad deeds of the "three aunts and six women" are obvious. The transgression of intellectual women and the vicious deeds of rural slang women abounded, so the intention of compiling and publishing books on women's education was no longer limited to the education of the palace. The preface of Lu Kun's "Boudoir Fan" clearly says: "Since the decline of the world's teaching, the people in the boudoir have abandoned the etiquette. Born in Yannei, accustomed to listening to slang words, in the rich family, arrogant and extravagant. [27] Moreover, Lü Kun emphasized that "many women's books are difficult to know, and those that are obscure are difficult to understand"[28], implying that women's books should not only be read by intellectual women, but also benefit lower-class women who are not proficient in poetry and books. Lu Kun's "Boudoir Ring" is especially aimed at correcting the bad behavior of rural slang women, and "Boudoir Precept Citation" says: "The family is prosperous, and the women live in half, but this generation has never been uneducated, and arrogance has become a trend." [29] Zhao Nanxing's "Commentary on the Daughter's Sutra" commented that the female dependents of the scholar's family "enjoy thick and thin virtues, beautiful and ugly hearts", so if you want to boost the style of teaching, you need to start from childhood, so the text must be plain and easy to understand.
Finally, there is the extreme of the concept of chastity. Judging from the data of the collection of chastity martyrs in women's education books, the concept of women in the Ming Dynasty gradually narrowed, highlighting women's chastity, and other qualities such as "motherhood" and "filial piety" The writing space was sharply compressed, and the length of the story of chastity martyrs became longer and longer. Liu's "Female Fan Jielu" "Zhen Lie Chapter" cloud: "Loyal ministers do not matter the two countries, and martyrs do not change their husbands, so one is with them and will not move for life." Men can bigamy, and women are no longer suitable, so the hardships and hardships are called 'chastity', and generous donations are called 'martyrdom'. There are 10 articles in the book, but the chastity chapter includes the largest number of women, with 23 people, accounting for 14.7% of the total number; Mao Kun et al.'s "Ancient and Modern Women's Biography Commentary" volumes 1 to 4 and volume 5 supplements all divide women into six categories, and there are 20 "Zhenshun Biography", accounting for 19% of the total number; Feng Ruzong's "Female Fan Edition" consists of four volumes, with ten types of women, including 63 "virgins" in volume 3 and "martyrs" in volume 4, accounting for 55.3% of the total number; Huang Xizhou's "Ten Episodes of Boudoir Fan", the first four volumes are divided into ten categories of women, the fifth volume of the supplementary category is divided into six categories of women, and there are 57 people in volume 2 "Virgins", volume 3 "Martyrs" and volume 5 "Zhenshun Biography", accounting for 38.3% of the total number.
Beginning in the 19th year of Wanli (1591), the Jianning Santai Museum changed the "Biography of the Lienu" to "The Biography of the Martyrs", indicating that the structure of the women's stories included in the book has changed significantly. Zhang Dai, a Ming scholar, once explained the difference between "lie-women" and "martyrs". He believes: "The women are also virtuous and filial, some are seen by righteousness, some are chivalrous, and some are talented. Talking about the "Lienu" in the Ming Season, he also said: "I Minglienu Yi Tang and Song, during which the chivalrous things became more and more peculiar. [30] There are two main motives for this kind of cultural adjustment: first, the Ming Dynasty inherited Cheng Zhu's theory of science and continued Cheng Zhu's female concept that "death by starvation is very small, and loss of temperance is very great"; The second is that the late Ming Dynasty was decadent, and perhaps a large number of women could not keep chastity. Therefore, women's education books devote a lot of space to the deeds of typical women's observance, and discuss how women should choose in various situations, whether to keep festivals, martyrdom or death, and to go through power changes. If there is an aunt and a child, then you should endure and keep the festival, in order to fulfill the way of the child and the mother, chastity and filial piety are the highest norms of women's behavior order at that time.
3.2 Irony: Women's "Loyalty" and "Meritocracy"
Ming Dynasty women's books blur the boundaries between inside and outside the home, comparing men and women in the same space. Pan Tazhang, a poet in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, believed that the purpose of writing "The Biography of the Daughters" was to satirize men: "Those who pass on women are ashamed of their husbands and men...... After Yiyou, Haiyu was swaying, and the scholars often secretly masked their faces, while the female Hongtian Ji was able to hold her neck and arms, and she regarded death as home. In the middle of a city, the first to look at each other, how prosperous. [31] There are two main types of priests and doctors in women's education books: one is "loyalty" and the other is "virtuous".
"Loyalty" seems to be no different between men and women, and since ancient times, there have been stories of satirizing doctors with female loyalty. "The History of the New Five Dynasties: Miscellaneous Biography" records the story of Wang Ning's wife Li Shi cutting off her arm with an axe because her arm was held by others. Ouyang Xiu sighed: "If you don't love yourself and shame those who steal life, you should be ashamed to hear the wind of the Li family!" [32] Scholars of the Ming and Qing dynasties often contrasted the loyalty of the two sexes, especially the virtues of women as metaphors. Tang Xianzuyun: "For the sake of the minister's death, the loyal woman dies, why should the husband have more eyebrows." [33] Li Qing lived in the turbulent era of the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, and he respected himself with integrity, and he was repeatedly unable to recommend after the death of the Ming Dynasty. He sighed and said: "The scholar is ashamed and disgraced, and he is not in a hurry to explain the subtlety at this time and stimulate the spirit of loyalty. [34] In the second year of Shunzhi in the Qing Dynasty (1645), Nanjing was lost, the Hongguang Dynasty of the Southern Ming Dynasty fell, Li Qing crossed the river to live in Gaoyou three stacks, and later returned to Xinghua's hometown, during which the compilation of "The Female World" was completed, which was completed around the ninth year of Shunzhi (1653). It is a book imitating Liu Yiqing's "Shishuo Xinyu" volume 19 "Xianyuan" door, expanded to 31 doors, a variety of which are not only women's unique quality, but quite neutral temperament, such as "benevolence and filial piety", "Neng Zhe", "Jieyi", "Elegance", "Juncai", "Yiyong", "Yaliang", "Junmai", "noble", etc., there is a satirical meaning of scholars, especially the "Female World Sayings" compilation of Song Hongmai's "Rong Zhai Essays" volume 12 "Women Heroes" article, most of which are intended to be taken, is the book "Women Heroes" Article Yun: "Women Women, Women, Women, Wanwan boudoir, with softness and quietness for virtue, its sorrow and sorrow, the feeling of death, the fear of death, cover of course. As for being able to judge grace with righteousness, make decisions with wisdom, mediate major events, and treat death as home, it is almost better than a fierce husband! [35] Liu's "Female Fan Jielu" recorded the martyrdom of Tang Guimei and others in the Tang Dynasty: "Tang Guimei hanged herself from a tree to be completely chaste, and did not show the evil of her aunt; Pan Miaoyuan was martyred by her husband in the fire, and lived the life of her uncle...... It is all chastity that runs through the sun and the moon, the martyrdom is stuffed with two instruments, the righteousness is in the husband, and the festival is broadcast in the history, but it is not reluctant. [36] Liu believed that Tang Guimei's loyalty and righteousness surpassed that of men, and that she should go down in history. Zhu Ruitu's "Complete Compilation of Women's History" in the "Mother Education Department" summarizes: "If you go through hardships and abide by the three obedience, and are willing to die for the country, women have husbands, loyal ministers come out of the door of filial piety, promote beauty and ethereal, streamer bamboo silk, and collect mother's education." [37] For only a woman who has the qualities of a mother and a martyr can educate a son who can be a loyal servant. The later the women's education in the Ming Dynasty, the more attention was paid to the writing of the story of women's chastity, and there was also a satire on the scholars, such as Jiajing's "Yanping Mansion Chronicles: The Biography of the Daughters" said: "When the women of the three festivals are punished, and when they encounter thieves and are captured, they can all be taken off and die...... The scholar lived in peace all day long, resisted the loyalty, despised Xu Zhang, and once the tribulation came, it was easy to say. [38] It can be seen that in the late Ming Dynasty, when the wind and rain were in turmoil, the behavior of scholars and doctors was in urgent need of a cultural correction, and the use of the satire of the chaste women who taught books was a way of correction.
For women, "meritocracy" is not only about being well-organized in housework, but also refers to the heroic decision of many women when they encounter emergencies, and can be a role model for their husbands. Jiang Ning Liu believes that women play an important role in both the family and society. She said in "Female Fan Jielu": "The road of public security is fixed in the husband, and there are wise women, which are better than men." Lofty strategy, forethought and predictable, hasty change, universal response but not exhaustive, seeking the leap, is also the master. [39] Lü Kun's "Boudoir Fan" described the deeds of Taicang Lingchun Yugong's niece Ti Ying to save her father: "Giving birth to a man may not be beneficial. If Ti Ying, although it is said to have a child, it can also be. Therefore, it has been famous in history for thousands of years, and those who are sons of man can be ashamed. [40] Donghai Yulongzi's "The Legend of the Daughters" and Lu Kun's "Boudoir Fan" both have the biography of "Lingmu Zhixing", commending Wang Lingmu's "wisdom of Zhixing and courage to kill", and believes that when the queen mother's life was hanging by a thread, she was still resolute and resolute, and she abandoned herself to become a son, and had the ability to be wise and brave. The East China Sea Yulongzi called him "the great husband of the woman". Lu Kun called it "difficult for a gentleman". Lu Kun's "Boudoir Fan" also contains the biography of "Lu Women's Yan Family": "Song Shao Ding, Kou Po Ninghua, want to ask for women's gold silk, Yan's is to summon Tian Ding, scatter family wealth jewelry and Tian Ding, Tian Ding is grateful and excited, and finally can unite as one, support each other, so that the thief can attack, and everyone's lives and property can be safe." Lu Kunzan said: "Isn't it a great husband!" The courage of independence and fearlessness, the wisdom of firmness and condensation, the spirit of excitement, the talent of encouragement, and the righteousness of compassion for support. ”[41]
Eastern Han Dynasty Banzhao "Female Commandment"
4
epilogue
Since Han Liu Xiang's "Biography of the Daughters" and Ban Zhao's "The Commandments of Women", women's education books have been published throughout the dynasties to record and publicize the stories of the women and regulate women's morality and behavior. However, the number of women's books compiled and published in the Ming Dynasty increased dramatically, exceeding the total number of women's books published in previous dynasties. Of course, this is due to the progress of printing technology in the Ming Dynasty and the reduction of book publishing costs, but the drastic changes in society and culture in the Ming Dynasty, especially in the middle and late periods, caused all strata to deviate from the traditional etiquette and religion, which is also an important reason. According to Parsons's structuralist theory, the publication of a large number of books on women's education was also a reaction of intellectuals to the drastic political, economic, and social changes in the Ming Dynasty, and a cultural repair of the problems that arose in the political, economic, and social systems by the cultural system. From the perspective of identity, books, as a cultural symbol, symbolize the identity of those responsible. The diversity of the identities of the publishers of women's education books reflects the very different publishing intentions of women's education books. The publication of women's books in the Ming Dynasty showed the characteristics of the diversification of women's social classes, the whitening of language and writing, and the intensification of the concept of chastity, indicating that the publishers of the books realized that women from all walks of life (especially lower-class women) had lost their ancient rites, and it was especially difficult to observe chastity, and it was urgent to emphasize Cheng Zhu's concept of women. At the same time, the intended audience of women's education books also included the decadent scholar class of the late Ming Dynasty, hoping that loyal and virtuous women would become their cultural role models.
Notes:
[1] Soulliere E F. Palace Women in the Ming Dynasty: 1368-1644[D]. Princeton University,1987.
[2] [10] Carlitz K. The Social Uses of Female Virtue in Late Ming Editions of Lienu Zhuan[J]. Late Imperial China, 1991, 12(2): 117-148.
[3] [16] Ko D. Teacher of the Inner Chamber: Women and Culture in Seventeenth -Century China [M]. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994: 45.
[4] Junichi Yamazaki. 教育から覟中国女史信息の研究——女四书と新女動三书——[M].Tokyo:Meiji Shoin,1986.
[5] Wang Guangyi. Ming Dynasty Communication Research,1999(2):69-89.
[6] Chen Baoliang. Women's education and its turn in the Ming Dynasty[J].Social Science Series,2009(6):157-161.
[7] Wang Meiying, Xu Shulin. On the Reading Group of Female Teachers in the Ming Dynasty[J].University Library Work,2017(4):23-27.)
[8] Wang Guangyi. Research on female teaching in the Ming Dynasty[M].Taiwan:Mulan Cultural Business Co., Ltd.,2020:Appendix.
[9] Parsons, T., in his book The Social System (1951), argues that social structure is a kind of "overall social system" formed by multi-level subsystems with different functions, including subsystems that perform the four basic functions of "goal achievement", "adaptation", "integration" and "model maintenance", corresponding to the four basic functions: the "economic system" performs the function of adapting to the environment, the "political system" performs the function of achieving goals, the "social system" performs the function of integration, and the "cultural system" Perform mode maintenance functions. Each part of the system plays a role in the whole, and at the same time, through continuous differentiation and integration, the dynamic equilibrium order of the whole is maintained.
[11] Lou Hansong, ed. Hangzhou:Zhejiang Ancient Books Publishing House,2016:1584.
[12] Hu Wenkai. Shanghai:Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House,2008:159-160.
[13] (Qing) Mao Qiling. Beijing:Zhonghua Book Company,1991:57.
[14] [15] (Ming) Shen Defu. Beijing:Zhonghua Book Company,2015:876,3266.
[17] (Qing) Zhang Tingyu. Beijing:Zhonghua Book Company,2016:3851.
[18] [36] [39] Lou Hansong. Collection of Chinese Family Mottos of the Past Dynasties (Vol.5)[M].Zhejiang Ancient Books Publishing House,2016:3142,2934,2934.
[19] Wang Anle. The Double Variation of Scholars and Merchants: A Study on the Phenomenon of the Combination of Scholars and Merchants in the Publishing Industry in the Late Ming Dynasty[J].Publishing and Distribution Research,2020(10):106-111.)
[20] Zheng Zhenduo believes that the book is "not a pen of ten continents" and was written for the sake of pretence.
[21] Chen Baoliang. Chongqing:Chongqing University Press,2014:8.
Taipei: Institute of History and Linguistics, Academia Sinica, China, 1962:1329.
[23] Siku Quanshu Inventory Series Compilation Committee. Siku Quanshu Inventory Series (History Department No. 115)[M].Jinan:Qilu Publishing House,1996:162.
[24] (Qing) Chen Hongmou. Shanghai:Sweeping Leaves Mountain House,1927:32a.
[25] (Ming) Tan Yuanchun. Changsha:Yuelu Publishing House,1988:93.
[26] (Ming) Qingxi Daoren. Beijing:Huaxia Publishing House,1995:47.
[27] [28] [29] [40] [41] Lou Hansong. Hangzhou:Zhejiang Ancient Books Publishing House,2016:2632,2632,2734,2632,2707-2708.
[30] (Ming) Zhang Dai. Beijing:Palace Press,2014:185.
[31] Beijing Library Ancient Books Publishing Editorial Group. Beijing Library Ancient Books and Rare Books Series (Vol.19)[M].Beijing:Bibliography and Literature Publishing House,1988:10.
[32] (Song) Ouyang Xiu. Beijing:Zhonghua Book Company,2015:612.
[33] (Ming) Tang Xianzu. Beijing:Zhonghua Book Company,1962:824.
[34] (Qing) Li Huan. Guochao Qi Xian Class Zheng Initial Edition, Volume 474[M].Yangzhou:Guangling Publishing House,1984:53.
[35] (Song) by Hong Mai; Xia Zuyao,Zhou Hongwu School. Rong Zhai Essay[M] Changsha:Yuelu Publishing House,2006:276.
[37] (Ming) Zhu Ruitu. Taipei: "National Library" Rare Book Room Collection: Ming Qi Zhen Jian Wan Juan Tang Journal: 1b.
[38] Tianyi Pavilion Collection of Ming Dynasty Fang Zhi Selected Journals (Vol. 9)[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Ancient Books Bookstore,1961:21b-22a.
——This article was originally published in Publishing Science, Issue 2, 2024
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About the Author
Guan Siyu, female, from Harbin, is a 2020 Ph.D. student in library science, School of Information Management, Wuhan University, with research interests: the history of Chinese book culture.
Li Mingjie, a native of Fengcheng, Jiangxi, has a doctorate in management. He is currently a third-level professor and doctoral supervisor of the School of Information Management, Wuhan University. He is also a member of the 7th Council of the Chinese Index Society, the vice chairman of the Compilation and Publication Committee of the 9th Council of the Library Society of China, a member of the Academic Research Committee of the 10th Council of the Library Society of China, a member of the Intelligent Development and Utilization Professional Committee of the Chinese Association for the Protection of Ancient Books, the deputy editor-in-chief of the "Philology and Document Protection" branch of the Library Science Volume of the Encyclopedia of China (3rd Edition), a researcher of the Cultural Heritage Intelligent Computing Laboratory of Wuhan University, and a researcher of the Research Center for Ancient Book Protection and Document Restoration of Wuhan University. He has presided over a number of major research projects of philosophy and social science research of the Ministry of Education and the National Social Science Foundation of China, and is the author of "Research on Song Dynasty Editions" (Qilu Publishing House, 2006), "Chinese Publishing History: Ancient Volumes" (Hunan University Press, 2008), "Research on Ancient Chinese Book Copyright" (Social Sciences Academic Press, 2013), "Concise Ancient Books Collation Course" (Wuhan University Press, 2018), "Song of the Twilight Rain: Sidney D. • Education in the Republic of China (1917-1932) (Wuhan University Press, 2019), etc., and published nearly 100 papers. His research interests include document collation and conservation, and the history of Chinese book culture.
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