The Russian Tsardom, as a European power, has always coveted China's vast northeastern territories. During the Xianfeng period, Russia took the opportunity to invade the Heilongjiang River valley with the intention of annexing Chinese territory. In the face of Russian aggression, the attitude of the Qing government was half-real and half-false, sometimes tough, sometimes retreating. How did this protracted Sino-Russian negotiation evolve? Who are the negotiators on both sides? Let us trace those turbulent years together and unravel the doubts of history.
The situation in the Heilongjiang River Basin
In October of the fifth year of Xianfeng (1855), the Heilongjiang general Yige reported a worrying thing to the imperial court: more than 20 Russian warships and more than 100 armed men sailed up the Songhua River with the intention of penetrating into the Heilongjiang River valley. According to the detailed statistics in the report, the total number of large and small ships invaded by Russia that year was as high as 138.
In the face of Russia's blatant aggression, Yige spoke softly in the middle of the recital, repeatedly praising the Russian side for "living up to the righteousness of reconciliation between the two countries." He even repeatedly excused himself, fearing that if the Russians died of frostbite in the bitter cold, the Russian tsar and officials would "resent" him and others. As a member of the Qing Dynasty, Yige was so undecided on such major issues as national sovereignty and territorial integrity, greedy for life and afraid of death, which shows that he really failed to deal with foreign affairs.
Yige's spies soon learned more serious news: not only did the Russians not plan to withdraw their troops, but intended to permanently occupy the left bank of the Heilongjiang River. According to reconnaissance, the Russian army will send thousands of men and horses to the place, build city walls, and stay in important areas for a long time. As soon as this news was reported, the Qing government realized the seriousness of the situation and Russia's ambitions were exposed.
Seeing that the situation was becoming increasingly severe, the Jilin general Jing Chun hurriedly asked the imperial court to transfer back the officers and soldiers to the south to defend against the increasingly rampant Russian invasion. However, the Qing court's reply was that it was at war with the Taiping army, and it was really difficult to transfer officers and soldiers to the south. The Qing court also stated in the edict, "The only way to control foreign countries is to try to restrain them, be good at enlightenment, and there is no reason to use troops rashly." ＂
Although these words seem tough on the surface, they are actually half true and half false. On the one hand, the Qing government did pursue a policy of "restraint" for a long time and adopted a relaxed attitude toward the northern frontier; on the other hand, because of the tight south, it was unable to fight in two battlefields at the same time. This ambiguity undoubtedly gave the local magistrates clear instructions that they were doomed to lose step by step in the upcoming formal border negotiations, which would eventually lead to heavy land losses.
At the beginning of the sixth year of Xianfeng (1856), Yige stepped down as the general of Heilongjiang, and Yishan, who was "good at razing affairs", took over. However, the Russian invasion did not stop with personnel changes. On the contrary, the Russian ships were still intensifying their invasions, and the Qing court had no other way to do this than to continue to note the Russian side, demanding that the Sino-Russian Treaty of Nebuchu be observed and not to invade the Songhei Valley.
The Qing government's instructions to the local officials were still to "pay attention to the movements of Russian ships, but not to act rashly." In March of the sixth year of Xianfeng, an edict was issued to Delek Dorji, Yishan, Jingchun and others, asking them to "secretly take precautions and never regenerate incidents", "must be secretly fortified, deal with them randomly, and do not let them breed incidents".
Under the clear compromise policy of the imperial court, the local officials had to agree in this way. Jing Chun proposed in the recital that "it is always better not to provoke or neglect", and Yishan said that if the Russian side has another "offer", it must be "good at controlling it and not provoking".
In this way, under the Qing government's top-down policy of unification and compromise, the Russian warships seemed to have entered a no-man's land, and acted recklessly in the Heilongjiang River valley and the seas of Northeast Asia. In addition to continuing to transport personnel and materials and seizing important areas along the Heilongjiang River, the Russian army has also further outflanked the waters of northern China, trying to penetrate the Bohai Sea and the Yellow Sea, and giving full play to the sea power advantage of the Heilongjiang River system connecting the inland and the northwest Pacific Ocean.
The Qing government was hesitant
In the face of Russia's continued invasion in the Heilongjiang Valley, the Qing government's attitude can be described as indecisive, sometimes strong and sometimes weak. On the one hand, it is aware that it must be prepared to guard against Russia's troubles; on the other hand, it is unable to divide its troops into two fronts to fight, so it has no choice but to continue to tolerate and condone Russia.
At that time, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement was in full swing, and the Qing army was making every effort to encircle and suppress the Taiping army. Under such circumstances, it is really overstretched to dispatch a large number of officers and men to the north to resist Russia. Therefore, the Qing court made it clear in its edict that it would continue to pursue a policy of "restraint" and that it could only "try to restrain and enlighten" the Russian invasion, and that it must not "use troops rashly."
Such a policy is undoubtedly expedient, but it is precisely this expediency that expands the space for Russian aggression. The Qing government has always pursued a relaxed policy toward the northern frontier, and in addition to the fact that it is now mired in internal and external troubles, the local officials naturally have no choice but to obey the will of the higher authorities and are powerless to deal with Russia's provocations.
In the sixth year of Xianfeng, after Yige stepped down as the general of Heilongjiang, he was succeeded by Yishan, who was so-called "good at razing affairs". However, the invasion of Russian ships continued, and the Qing court had no other way but to continue to note the Russian side, demanding that the Sino-Russian Treaty of Nebuchu not invade the Songhei River Basin.
In March of the same year, the Qing court issued instructions to Deleke Dorji, Yishan, Jingchun and others, asking them to "secretly take precautions and never repeat incidents" and "must be secretly fortified and deal with them randomly, so as not to breed incidents". These instructions are undoubtedly a clear request to the local officials to continue to tolerate and condone the Russian side and not to intensify the contradictions.
As front-line commanders, Deleke Dorji, Yishan, Jingchun and others naturally had to do so. Jing Chun proposed in the recital that "it is always better not to provoke or neglect", and Yishan said that if the Russian side has another "offer", it must be "good at controlling it and not provoking".
Under this top-down policy of unification and compromise, the Russians can be described as no one in the Heilongjiang River Valley. In addition to continuing to transport personnel and materials and seizing important areas along the Heilongjiang River, the Russian army has also further outflanked the waters of northern China, trying to penetrate the Bohai Sea and the Yellow Sea, and giving full play to the sea power advantage of the Heilongjiang River system connecting the inland and the northwest Pacific Ocean.
In the face of this series of Russian moves, the Qing government continued to respond to the story. In the seventh year of Xianfeng, the Imperial Court issued two letters to the Russian Privy Council, the content of which was almost the same as that of the note in the previous two years, and even stated that Russia's seizure of Chinese territory and other acts were "arbitrary acts by your subordinates, and your king knows about them and must punish them." "I'm afraid it's not your king's intention. Forgive your country must be investigated, and the whole friendship is also such an absurd and ridiculous rhetoric.
It can be said that in these protracted Sino-Russian negotiations, the attitude of the Qing government has always been consistent: it ignored Russia's provocations and turned a blind eye to Russia's aggression. This attitude was undoubtedly an expedient measure, but it was precisely this expedient measure that laid the bane for Russia to take root in the Heilongjiang River valley, and eventually led to the cession of major national territory.
Russian intrigues
In this protracted Sino-Russian negotiation, Russia can be said to have used all kinds of intrigues and tricks to completely disintegrate China's defense forces in the northeast region.
First of all, Russia secretly sent a large number of spies to infiltrate Northeast China to spy on China's military deployment and defense situation. Often disguised as merchants or outcasts, these spies wandered around towns and cities to secretly gather military intelligence. Some even assumed the identity of Chinese officials and blended into the camp of the Qing army to learn about the specific strength and weapons of the army.
Second, the Russians also secretly bought many Chinese traitors, paving the way for their infiltration and expansion in China. These traitors are often greedy and corrupt local officials or warlords who, for their own selfish interests and without regard for national interests, leak military secrets and military movements to the Russian side one by one. Some traitors even directly provided arms, grain and grass to the Russian army to provide material support for its invasion of Northeast China.
Third, the Russians have also secretly spread a lot of rumors in an attempt to sow discord between the Chinese and Russian peoples and create civil strife. They secretly spread rumors such as "Chinese officials are corrupt and incompetent" and "Russia is here to rescue the Chinese people" in an attempt to incite Chinese people's dissatisfaction with the Qing government and create a pretext for its invasion of northeast China.
What's more, the Russians also secretly supported some Chinese peasant rebels, providing them with weapons and munitions, with the intention of allowing these rebels to disrupt China's internal order and create favorable conditions for their invasion of northeast China. These rebels were often used by the Russians as pawns and pawns in China.
In the face of these intrigues and tricks of the Russians, the Qing government seemed to be ignorant or turned a blind eye. Although some local officials were aware of this, they had no choice but to obey orders due to the Qing government's policy of appeasement and connivance.
In this way, under the various intrigues and tricks of the Russians, China's defense forces in the northeast region were gradually weakened, and the Russians' invasions became more and more unscrupulous. In the end, under the coercion and temptation of Russia, the Qing government had to sign a series of treaties that humiliated the country and ceded a large area of the country. This past has left a heavy wound on the Chinese nation, and it still makes people sigh to this day.
The story of the Ryō Domain
In the face of the continued Russian invasion in the Heilongjiang Valley, the Qing government did not completely ignore the instructions of the local officials to tolerate and condone them. As the Qing government's main institution for foreign affairs, the Lifan Yuan also sent many notes to the Russian side, demanding that it abide by the treaty and withdraw the invading troops. It's a pity that these notes are just fictional stories and have no practical effect.
In the fifth year of Xianfeng, after the Russian ships invaded the Heilongjiang River valley on a large scale, the Lifan Yuan began to write to the Russian Privy Council and make representations. In the note, the Imperial Court said that the Russian side's initial excuse was to "defend against the British," and that the Chinese general Heilongjiang had not heard of the imperial court and had given convenience to the Russian side. Now that the Russian army has further occupied Chinese territory such as Hailanpao, it should be withdrawn.
It can be seen that in this note, the Imperial Court is still excusing the Russian invasion and blaming the local officials for allowing them to leave without reporting. This practice undoubtedly excused the weakness and incompetence of the Qing government, and at the same time exposed the Qing government's ignorance of the situation in the northeastern frontier.
What is even more ridiculous is that in this note, the court also pretends that the top decision-maker is ignorant of the situation, and treats the issue of territorial sovereignty negotiations in the form of so-called "fetters" and "human feelings", which is not heeded by the Russian side at all.
In the following year, the Imperial Court issued two more letters to the Russian Privy Council, the content of which was almost the same as that of the previous two years, and even stated that Russia's seizure of Chinese territory and other acts "are arbitrary acts of your subordinates, and your king knows about them and must punish them." "I'm afraid it's not your king's intention. Forgive your country must be investigated, and the whole friendship is also such an absurd and ridiculous rhetoric.
In these notes, the Imperial Court repeatedly blamed the Russian army's aggression on "the arbitrary acts of his subordinates and others" and expressed its belief that the Russian Tsar did not know about it and would definitely punish him. This is nothing less than self-deception and escapism.
In fact, the Russian tsar not only knew about it, but also personally instructed it to annex China's northeastern territories. However, the Qing government turned a blind eye to this and blindly avoided it, which eventually led to the tragedy of a major land cession.
In this protracted Sino-Russian negotiation, the various notes of the Imperial Court were nothing more than false stories and had no practical effect. On the contrary, they exposed the Qing government's ignorance of the situation in the northeastern frontier and its conniving attitude towards Russian aggression.
It can be said that these false stories of the Rifan Yuan not only failed to prevent the Russian invasion, but instead laid the root cause for its roots in the Heilongjiang Valley, and eventually led to the cession of major national territory. This past has left a heavy wound on the Chinese nation, and it still makes people sigh to this day.
Russia's tough attitude
In this protracted Sino-Russian negotiation, Russia can be said to have taken a tough attitude, taking every step of the way, and finally forced the Qing government to sign a series of treaties that humiliated the country.
As early as the third year of Xianfeng (1853), the Russian side took the initiative to set up boundary signs on the northeast border of China. On the fourth day of August of that year, the Russian Privy Council sent a note to the Imperial Court, saying that the Governor General of Eastern Siberia had requested the establishment of boundary signs on the border between the two countries, including the coastal areas, and asked the Chinese side to send personnel to work with the court.
In this note, the Russian side left an obvious trap, claiming that according to the treaty, the border between China and Russia in the coastal area "has not been demarcated so far" and that "the two sides can still negotiate on the relevant coastal area" when the boundary plate is erected.
In the face of this unreasonable demand from the Russian side, although the Qing government ordered the Imperial Court and local officials to find out the situation of the demarcation, it was ultimately unable to give a clear answer. In its reply, the Court of Justice went so far as to admit that in the past, there were indeed "no boundary monuments (tablets)" in the past, and "no case has been completed" as to how to demarcate the boundary sites in the coastal areas of Russia.
This is undoubtedly giving the green light to Russia's unreasonable demands. The ignorance of the Qing government on the northeastern border created the conditions for the Russian side to annex Chinese territory.
In the following year, although the Qing court instructed Decor to send a letter to the Russian side, and Yinglong, Jingchun and others would jointly survey and divide the boundary sign, this instruction placed the issue of territorial demarcation at the local level, and did not carry out the central government's overall planning.
In such a situation, the Russian side naturally took advantage of the situation and took advantage of the situation step by step. It first secretly sent spies to spy on China's military situation and bribed traitors to obtain military secrets; then secretly supported the peasant rebels and created civil strife; and finally directly threatened and induced the Qing government to sign a series of treaties that humiliated the country.
Among them, the most famous is the Treaty of Aihui, signed in 1858. In this treaty, the Qing government had to cede a large area of territory east of the Heilongjiang River, including all territories east of the Suifen River, the Heilongjiang River, and the Ussuri River. This is undoubtedly a significant loss of territory.
Prior to this, the Russians had already sailed back and forth in the Heilongjiang River valley for several years, further consolidating their advantages in various places along the way, and preparing for the formal annexation of the territory on the left bank of the Heilongjiang River through forced negotiations.
It can be said that in this protracted Sino-Russian negotiation, the Russians have always been in the active position, while the Qing government has been losing ground one after another. The intransigence of the Russians, combined with the weakness and incompetence of the Qing government, eventually led to the cession of major national territory. This past has left a heavy wound on the Chinese nation, and it still makes people sigh to this day.