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"Treasure Mountain World History Research Guide"
The Guide to the Study of World History in Baoku Mountain is the latest reflection of the contemporary Western historiography's understanding of human history, breaking through the previous encyclopedias' large, comprehensive, and all-encompassing writing methods, and highlighting the narrative of new knowledge, new concepts, and new methods.
Title: A Guide to the Study of World History at Treasure Mountain
Author: William H. McNeill et al., editor-in-chief;
ISBN ：978-7-108-07348-8
Price: 1980 yuan
Word count: 5596 thousand characters
Publisher: Life, Reading, New Knowledge Joint Bookstore
Editor's Choice
World history is complex, dynamic and inclusive, and this book uses more than 500 entries and six brilliant volumes to present the rapid increase in information provided by Western historians after the Second World War, and from the perspective of world history research, to organize, analyze and interpret the complex human history, shaping the movements, exchanges and changes of the world as we know it today, and inspiring people to think deeply. Human history as a whole is an important thing worthy of people's study and consideration, and the editors of this book have selected and arranged research topics not only from the simple text level, but also at the intellectual level, reflecting that "the communication network of human beings is global", so that readers can experience the "movement" of reading and the "movement" of world history at the same time.
Introduction
The Guide to the Study of World History in Baoku Mountain is the latest reflection of the contemporary Western historiography's understanding of human history, breaking through the previous encyclopedias' large, comprehensive, and all-encompassing writing methods, and highlighting the narrative of new knowledge, new concepts, and new methods. This book observes the various cultures of the world in a communication system, systematically sorts out the contributions made by each of them to human civilization, helps readers understand the past of mankind by linking special regional histories with the broader world history, arranges the entries in a unique, self-contained system, and cross-search, and pays attention to the use of both documentary materials and visual materials to facilitate study, and looks at the development of world history with the concept of connection, focusing on the comprehensive and interdisciplinary interpretation of grand themes and traditional themes. World history is no longer just an isolated study of civilizations, peoples, regional histories, chronicles, political histories, economic histories, and "great men", but it has become a dynamic academic field of exchange, collision, connection, and exchange of importance that transcends time and space.
About the Author
William H. McNeill (1917.10.31-2016.7.8) was one of the world's most famous historians, the founder of global history research, and the "modern pioneer" of the discipline of world history. Professor Emeritus at the University of Chicago, he has served as President of the American Historical Association and President of the American Society of World History. He was hailed as "the leader of the American academy in the 20th century" and "the giant of the 20th century who made a worldwide interpretation of history", opening up a new era of Western world historiography. In 1996, he was awarded the Erasmus Prize for "outstanding contributions to the cultural, social and social sciences of Europe", and in 2010, President Barack Obama awarded him the National Medal of the Humanities for his outstanding contributions, which is engraved with the words "Expanding our understanding of the world".
About the translator
Chen Heng is a professor of world history at Shanghai Normal University, with research interests in the history and theory of Western historiography and Western urban history. He is the chief expert of the key textbook "History of Foreign Historiography" of the Ma Project, and the "Advanced Individual of National Textbook Construction" of the first National Textbook Award. He is a member of the Higher Education Teaching Steering Committee (History) of the Ministry of Education, Vice President of the Chinese Society for the Study of Ancient and Medieval History of the World, Vice President of the Chinese Historical Theory Research Association, and Vice Chairman of the Shanghai Federation of Social Affairs.
Yu Jinyao is a chair professor at Nankai University, a professor at Henan University and the University of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, and the chairman of the Chinese Modern World History Committee.
Liu Jian is a researcher and deputy director of the Institute of World History, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. Secretary-General of the Chinese Society for the Study of Ancient and Medieval History of the World, Deputy Director, Secretary-General and Invited Researcher of the Comparative Research Center for Chinese Civilization and World Ancient Civilization of the Chinese Academy of History.
Guo Zilin is a researcher at the Chinese Academy of History, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, and a professor at the University of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. Director of the Scientific Research Planning Division of the Chinese Academy of History, Deputy Editor-in-Chief of Historical Research, and Executive Director of the Chinese Society for the Study of Ancient and Medieval History of the World.
Huang Yanhong is a researcher in the Department of World History, School of Humanities, Shanghai Normal University, and a director and secretary-general of the Chinese Society for the Study of Modern World History.
Liu Wenming is a professor at the School of History and director of the Center for Global History. His research interests include global history, the history of Western civilization, and the history of gender culture.
Table of Contents of the Whole Book
General
Translator's Foreword 1
Preface to the Chinese edition 7
Preamble 1
Introduction to the second edition 5
About the first and second editions of this book edited by William McNeill 15
Contributor 17
Image by 39
Quote provider 43
How to spell and say
--100 Important Names, Names and Terms in World History 45
Readers' Guide 51
Reader's Classification Guide 53
Map index 75
词条条目 77
Body 1—2498
Index 2499–2673
Text
第一卷 Abraham to Byzantine Empire 1—406
Abraham ~ Byzantine Empire
第二卷 Caesar, Augustus to Ethnology 407—854
Augustus Caesar ~ Ethnology
第三卷 Eurasia, Inner to Kongo 855—1290
Eurasian Inland ~ Congo
第四卷 Korea to Philosophy, Greek and Roman 1291—1718
Korean ~ Greco-Roman philosophy
第五卷 Philosophy, Modern to Television 1719—2134
Modern Philosophy ~ TV
第六卷 Terrorism to Zoroastrianism 2135—2498
Terrorism ~ Zoroastrianism
Wonderful reading
Diseases—Animal 动物疫病
Throughout human history, every disease that has caused a pandemic and changed the philosophical traditions of society has originated in animals other than humans, which have been transmitted to humans "across species boundaries". When we discuss the impact of disease on human history, it is not necessary to distinguish between animal diseases and human diseases.
It is important to note that because humans are mammals, diseases found in animals other than humans, especially in other mammals, are often easily transmitted to humans. The diseases that have had the most significant impact on human history are all infectious diseases, while non-communicable diseases have had little impact on human history. By definition, infectious diseases spread rapidly by infecting healthy people. Those who are infected die or recover within a short period of time, while those who recover usually gain immunity against reinfection with the same disease.
Quantitatively, the single most documented single epidemic in human history was the influenza outbreak at the end of World War I, which killed 40 million people. According to reports, the plague that had the greatest impact on human history was the plague that occurred in the 14th century, killing more than 25% of the population of Western Europe. However, despite the lack of documentation, the epidemics that had the greatest impact on population and human history were the cascades that spread throughout the Americas shortly after they came into contact with Europeans and their domesticated animals. These epidemics spread among people who had not been exposed to Eurasian diseases before, especially among those who suffered multiple traumas in the process of colonization - violence, enslavement, and loss of livelihood, usually resulting in a mortality rate of 90%~95%. Taken together, these diseases have the potential to kill as many as 100 million people in the Americas.
Among the infectious diseases transmitted to humans from other animals, smallpox, cholera, tuberculosis, plague and influenza are the most representative. Although AIDS is a potential problem in the modern world, it is not an infectious disease or an acute infectious disease. In recent years, there has been a world panic about diseases such as foot-and-mouth disease, the Hanta virus and the so-called mad cow disease, which may well not be epidemics at all. The pathological status of these diseases is insignificant compared to the other diseases listed above, yet they have attracted great public attention, most likely due to ignorance of the disease, fear fueled by media propaganda, and a lack of understanding of how the various diseases are transferred.
Most animal diseases transferred to humans are caused by bacteria and viruses that are small, highly active, and can be transmitted by aerosols, making them more easily transmitted from one individual to another, which is the basis of infection. Brates such as malaria and sleeping sickness are caused by protists, single-celled eukaryotic microorganisms, which are much larger than bacteria and viruses. The relatively large size of protists means that they are not aerosol-transmitted, so they are mainly transferred by injection, such as insect bites, which makes them less infectious.
Most infectious disease microorganisms co-evolve in interactions with other non-human species. These non-human species have evolved immune responses to disease-causing microorganisms, so infectious microbes do not pose a serious threat to the health or population of their original hosts. The reason why most infectious diseases are so deadly to humans is that when humans were first infected, humans did not evolve an immune response to these pathogens. Smallpox, for example, is associated with cowpox, which causes only a small amount of problems in cattle, but its mutations in humans are often fatal to humans. Similarly, HIV is closely associated with a viral infectious disease that occurs in African primates, but in the case of African primates, HIV causes only minor symptoms similar to influenza in them. Other examples include measles, which is closely related to rinderpest, a disease of ungulates, tuberculosis, which is closely related to a similar disease in cattle, and influenza, which is actually a complex viral disease that originates from similar pathogens carried by pigs (swine flu) and poultry such as ducks and chickens. Recently, malaria was added to the list of these types of diseases when it was discovered that the malaria parasite that causes malaria in humans is closely related to a less lethal parasite in chimpanzees.
Contagious infectious diseases, which spread from non-human species to humans across species boundaries, were once major factors in the history of Europe and Asia. The biggest difference between Europe and Asia and the Americas and Africa is that in Eurasian cultures, people domesticate animals and come into close contact with them, and these animals are the original hosts of sexually transmitted diseases. The domestication of ungulates, especially cattle and pigs, has led to close relationships between humans and these animals, which has led to constant exposure to epidemics that have little impact on ungulates, and areas of human society with high densities of cattle and pigs have become hotbeds for these diseases. The peasants lived a sedentary life, surrounded by filth produced by themselves, as well as by domesticated animals with whom they lived in close symbiosis. In many agrarian societies, it was customary for farmers to bring cows and pigs into their homes at night. This is both good for keeping the livestock warm and protecting them from predators. This condition both prolongs human exposure to germs and increases the likelihood of germs spreading.
Agriculture has a higher population density than the hunter-gatherer lifestyle it replaces. Increasing urbanization has led to large concentrations of people coming together, which has provided fertile ground for the rapid spread of infectious diseases that originate from other species. It was only in the 20th century that European cities truly balanced their populations, because in the past, so many urban dwellers had died of disease that they had to move from rural areas to cities in order to maintain their populations.
black death
The development of the world's trade routes accelerated the spread of epidemics. In Roman times, populations in Europe, Asia and North Africa became huge breeding grounds for diseases and microorganisms that originated in domestic animals. In the 2nd century, smallpox ravaged Rome, causing the "Plague of Antoninus" and killing millions of Roman citizens. Bubonic plague is the animal disease that has had the greatest impact on the course of history in Europe and Asia. The disease is transmitted by fleas, who are infected with Yersinia pestis from the usual host of plague, fur-bearing animals. In 542-543, the "Plague of Justinian" occurred in Europe, which was the first time that the plague appeared in Europe. However, it was not until the 14th century that the continent's most devastating plague occurred, killing up to 25 million people on the continent and gradually becoming known as the "Black Death". In the British Isles alone, the plague killed nearly 1.5 million people (25%~40% of the total population). With the opening of trade routes between Europe and China in the mid-14th century, furs were brought to Europe from the low-density areas of Central Asia, and these furs appear to be the main carriers of the germs that led to large plague outbreaks.
The plague of the 14th century had an important, but often unexpected, consequence of its profound impact on European philosophy and science. Before the middle of the 14th century, the worldview that prevailed in Europe was mystical and symbolistic, rooted in a cyclical view of time. Compared with the worldview that emerged after the arrival of the Black Death, this worldview emphasizes the connection between human beings and the non-human elements of the world.
When the plague struck and began to wreak havoc on the people of its reach, the knowledge and techniques of this old philosophical tradition were used to help the people, including prayer, healing based on sympathetic witchcraft, and the search for scapegoats (such as witch burning). However, none of these methods have proven to be effective. Moreover, in the face of death and destruction caused by disease, human powerlessness caused widespread panic and the ensuing great decline of civilization. The impact of disease on society cannot be overestimated. Traditional spiritual beliefs and people's preconceived notions of how the world works are shattered, leading to a sense of spiritual emptiness.
Some historians have described the plague as "the most significant bio-environmental event in history," while others have called it "the equivalent of a nuclear catastrophe." The plague forced Western Europeans to construct reality in a new way. In the Christian world, the plague caused people to lose faith in a merciful, merciful Creator, to scapegoat the "infidels," and eventually, it led to the birth of Protestantism and the beginning of an angry, vengeful image of God in Protestantism.
From a more academic point of view, through the plague, people's intellectual traditions developed, namely the separation of body and mind, objective and subjective, and human and nature. This led to the emergence of the Renaissance and the development of the "rationalist" scientific tradition in Western Europe, culminating in Cartesian dualism – a way of understanding the non-human world in terms of machine models or metaphors, and the Bacon-Newton worldview. Thus, the impact of the plague on philosophy and spiritual belief led directly to the emergence of a "modern" rationalist approach, in which experimentation and measurement replaced the original observation and experience.
This new way of perceiving reality has had many positive effects. For example, improved sanitation has purified the environment in which many contagious infections occur. This method of separating the real world into the spiritual and material worlds provides a powerful methodology for studying and understanding the "external" world. However, this approach is not sufficient to understand the inner experience, the human mind, and the relationship between humans and other living beings. Thus, while this dualistic view has led to improved sanitation, it has not deepened the understanding of issues such as the natural cycle of disease or the evolution of the immune response.
The Old World and the New World
By comparing the Old World (Eurasia and North Africa) with the New World (North and South America), we will understand the importance of animal diseases in shaping human history and human cultural attitudes towards the environment. Agriculture was present in many civilizations in the Americas, but agriculture in the New World was based almost entirely on the cultivation of crops such as maize, potatoes, pumpkins and legumes, rather than on nomadic pastoralism, animal husbandry and the domestication of ungulates. The only domesticated animals in the Americas were dogs, guinea pigs, alpacas (llamas and alpacas), and turkeys. Unlike domesticated ungulates in the Old World, domesticated animals in the New World have not been kept at high densities. People do not drink animal milk, nor do they raise domesticated animals as domestic animals and get up close and personal with them, as in the old world, with the exception of dogs.
Many civilizations in the New World also had high population densities, comparable to those of Europe. At its peak, the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan, may have been one of the largest cities in the world, and there is evidence that the population of central Mexico exceeds the long-term environmental carrying capacity of the land. Similarly, many other civilizations in the New World, such as the Maya, Inca, and the Mound Builder civilizations living in the Mississippi and Ohio River valleys, had population densities comparable to those found in Eurasian civilizations compared to known human civilizations in Europe and Asia. However, despite the high population densities of the New World civilizations, there were few epidemics (clusters) of diseases among these native New World civilizations, which was undoubtedly due to the lack of domesticated ungulates in the New World civilizations, which were the source of most epidemics (except the plague) in Europe, Asia and North Africa. Although there were no epidemics in the New World, epidemics were likely related to the disappearance of some large cities in the Americas, possibly due to poor local sanitation.
Animal diseases in the New World
One of the most ironic events in the history of animal diseases is the absence of non-human infectious diseases and the lack of corresponding immunity in the New World, which is almost certainly an important factor in the successful invasion of the Americas by Europeans and their worldview, re-forged only a few centuries ago through their own experience of infectious diseases. From time to time, Europeans occupied much of Africa and Asia, but the arrival of Europeans did not significantly reduce the population because the infectious diseases they brought with them did not have a devastating effect on the region.
It was precisely because they had retained their numerical superiority on their own lands that, with the end of the colonial era, the indigenous peoples of Africa and Asia regained social and political control over their lands. In contrast, for Native Americans, the animal diseases brought by Europeans were devastating to the region's susceptible populations, far more devastating than the plague caused in Europe. It is estimated that 90%~95% of the indigenous people of the Americas die from foreign diseases.
Contrary to popular belief, the Holocaust, which is considered the first stage of the European conquest of the Americas, or the microbial stage, did not begin with the "discovery of America" by Christopher Columbus in 1492, but began much earlier. It began when Basque whalers, Viking immigrants and British fishermen began to land on the Atlantic coast of the Americas. This predates Columbus's arrival in the Caribbean and the arrival of other Spanish explorers (conquistadors) in the New World. There is evidence that before Christopher Columbus arrived in the Americas at the end of the 15th century, some tribes who originally lived along the Atlantic coast retreated inland to escape the epidemic that claimed most of their lives.
While so-called conquistadors such as Hernn Cortés and Francisco Pizarro had succeeded in the Americas, smallpox was the real culprit behind the collapse of the Aztec and Inca empires. Cortés' first voyage and invasion of the Aztec civilization in 1519 was far less successful than his invasion in 1520, after smallpox spread to Tenochtitlan. By the beginning of the 17th century, more than 90 percent of Mexico's indigenous population had died of smallpox, and the population had fallen from about 20 million to less than 2 million. The disease left the Aztecs demoralized and deprived them of the ability to resist Cortés. Similarly, smallpox spread to the Inca Empire in 1526, paving the way for Pizarro's successful "invasion" in 1531.
Evidence is known that 90 per cent or more of the indigenous populations were killed by the novel infectious diseases brought by Europeans and other symbiotic species upon arrival in the Americas. In a well-documented example, more than 95 percent of the Mandans—one of the most sophisticated civilizations of the Great Plains of North America—died of smallpox after it spread to the region in 1837 by ship on the Missouri River. However, even with these consequences, the population of the New World could have rebounded if the Indians' lands had not been permanently occupied after the European invasion and had not been ensued by continued colonization.
The introduction of exotic diseases had devastating consequences for the Native Americans. If the plague has prompted people to reimagine and rethink the role of human beings in the world after killing 20%~40% of the population in Europe, then it is difficult to imagine how much religious, social and philosophical impact the plague had when it killed 90%~95% of the population of the indigenous peoples of the Americas.
While disease is the main limiting factor in population growth, in practice, the number of people who are not affected by disease usually exceeds the number of people who are affected by it. Before Europeans arrived in the Americas, the indigenous populations were relatively unaffected by infectious diseases. As a result, indigenous populations have failed to develop immunity against infectious diseases. The indigenous people do not lack the ability to generate an immune response, and the way they spread the disease seems to be the cause of the devastating disaster. Smallpox and influenza, the main killers of Native American people, can be fatal to those aged 15~40. From a cultural and demographic point of view, they are both the most valuable and productive people in the population. These infectious diseases usually occur in concentrated outbreaks, which are punctuated by temporary remission and other hiccups and other hiccupes. Thus, it is likely that the population areas will be destroyed by a succession of three or four diseases, followed by a period of remission, and then they may well be hit by another disease or a new wave of diseases. This periodic occurrence of a large number of diseases undermined the ability of Native Americans to evolve an immune response.
This pattern of disease transmission has caused great psychological and mental stress to the local population. People are powerless to stop the spread of the disease, unable to care for themselves and their loved ones, and abandoned by their relatives and other members of the tribe who have fled the disease (often spreading the disease to other ethnic groups and settlements in the process), giving up hope altogether. Many of the treatments that people use, such as sweating followed by soaking in cold water, only hasten death. All traditional therapies lose their effectiveness in treating and controlling these infectious diseases, which makes people no longer trust healers and witch doctors, while also abandoning traditional spiritual activities and rituals. Because the European invaders were already immune to certain diseases, many indigenous populations considered European spiritual beliefs and philosophical traditions to be better than their own, which led many indigenous populations to adopt and embrace Christianity and its teachings.
The decline of indigenous religious traditions, coupled with the introduction of new goods and raw materials into the Americas, has led indigenous peoples to abandon their long-standing traditions of dealing with the natural world based on respect, connection and protection of nature. Some indigenous peoples may even blame wildlife and the natural world for infectious diseases, as it seems that many indigenous peoples associate the occurrence of diseases with wildlife and develop a cultural tradition that they see as minimizing the impact of disease and the likelihood of disease occurring. The Cherokee, for example, consider killing a deer to be disrespectful, which can lead to diseases like Lyme disease, which can be very damaging to health. The Cherokees blamed the emergence of new diseases on an imbalance in the universe that was caused by their failure to properly follow ancient rituals. Similarly, the Anishinaabe (also known as the Chippewa or Ojibway) developed the Mediwinin healing society and related rituals to deal with some of the diseases they perceived as being associated with wild animals. However, it is more likely that these diseases were contracted during their contact with Europeans in the pre-Columbian era.
Effects on species other than humans
Humans are not the only species to bear the burden of these alien diseases. In the second half of the 18th century, wild animal populations that lived between the Hudson Bay and the Rocky Mountains and became a source of food and clothing for the indigenous population, including deer, caribou, moose, bison and beavers, also died in large numbers. Their deaths were most likely caused by diseases carried by domesticated animals brought to the Americas by Europeans. It is important to note that the phenomenon of successive animal deaths occurs mainly in ungulates, which are likely to be the most vulnerable to infectious diseases carried by ungulates in Eurasia. New World carnivores, such as wolves and bears, appear to be relatively unaffected by these diseases. However, they face the problem of reduced food sources due to the decline in the number of ungulates.
In addition to the above-mentioned effects of the disease, the natural community of wild animals suffers another blow when indigenous populations take a manifest aversion to the eradication of animals. It is believed that these animals have broken their covenant with humans by transmitting the disease to humans. Thus, an ironic consequence of the introduction of non-human infectious diseases to the Americas is the destruction of cultural traditions based on respect for non-human species. Most, if not all, of the indigenous civilizations of North America had a philosophical tradition of believing that non-human species also have spirits, and that the idea that humans and the non-human world are in solidarity based on ecological relationships. It has been suggested that the devastating damage caused by foreign diseases to these civilizations led people to turn to attack their non-human partners, which led tribes to hunt down local populations such as beavers, deer, bison and wolves in exchange for their goods and metals in order to trade furs with Europeans.
European traditions and the natural world
The European tradition that invaded the Americas was very different from the Americans, which had its roots in England and Scotland, but which was the product of the Renaissance and rationalist traditions, which sought to completely separate man from the natural world and to make a connection only when it was used as a resource. At the end of the Renaissance (during the Reformation), the Protestant sects of Christianity in Western Europe developed a philosophical tradition that did not encourage the inquiry into God's method of creation. God has given humanity "primacy" over the non-human world, which provides sufficient legitimacy for humanity to treat the natural world at will.
In the eyes of Europeans, mountains mean unpleasant and dangerous, while forests are even more dangerous. The fact that these places were wild and therefore untamed was enough to arouse fear and hostility among Western Europeans. The wilderness (the natural world) is so terrifying that it makes people highly wary of wildlife that enters the realm of humans. A bee flying into a cottage or a bird tapping on a window is enough to scare people. In 1604, the English House of Commons refused to pass a bill because a jackdaw had flown over the council chamber while the proponent was making his speech.
Even today, human attitudes and behaviours that discriminate against the non-human (natural) world continue to exist in the human response to zoonotic infectious diseases. These responses are often extreme and excessive compared to the real threat posed by the pandemic. The most drastic response in recent years has been the slaughter of hundreds of thousands of farm animals by Europeans, especially in the British Isles. This was done in response to small outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease, as well as sporadic outbreaks of so-called mad cow disease.
As far as FMD is concerned, it is almost exclusively an economic shock, and there is little evidence that FMD poses a serious threat to human health. Still, the economic threat posed by FMD is justified in the slaughter of hundreds of thousands of animals, often because of the potential for human exposure. If the potential source of disease for the animals was Homo sapiens and not ungulates, would any person of conscience be able to imagine a scenario in which we would solve the problem in such a brutal way of slaughter? Similarly, bison that walked beyond the boundaries of Yellowstone in the United States were often immediately slaughtered by Montana authorities on the basis that they might be carriers of the bovine disease Brucella. Ironically, brucella evolved in Old World bovids and spread to the Americas along with Old World cattle. American bison have never shown symptoms of brucella infection, however, the fact that a small percentage of American bison test positive for the pathogen is still reason enough to slaughter American bison.
Even more absurd measures have been taken in dealing with mad cow disease — more accurately known as bovine brain spongiform disease (BSE). BSE is one of a series of related conditions caused by prions, which appear to be a class of protein molecules that replicate themselves. Other similar diseases include scrapie in sheep and Kuru and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in humans. The disease affects the central nervous system and progressively destroys the brain. Based on the symptoms that bovines exhibit when the central nervous system is damaged, people dismissively call it mad cow disease. However, a more appropriate and accurate name would be "Extremely Painful Cow." These conditions, which are apparently caused by prions, are not transmitted directly by contact, but only by eating the spongy tissue of the central nervous system, which includes the brain and spinal cord. The only reason why this condition is widespread in the United States and the United Kingdom is that slaughterhouses in these countries crush the "animal waste" after slaughtering the animals and add them to cattle feed as a protein excipient.
It is clear that humans can only contract the disease after eating food that contains the central nervous system of cattle. The outbreak of Kuru disease in New Guinea is closely related to its cultural tradition of eating other people's brain marrow. In the UK, those who have eaten low-quality burgers have experienced BSE-like symptoms. Obviously, the disease could be avoided if the use of slaughterhouse animal waste could be banned in the feed of hamburgers and cattle for human consumption. However, this adjustment has been slow or even hampered by economic pressures. However, fewer than 20 people in the world suffer from BSE, and people who cook beef by roasting or frying it are generally unlikely to contract the disease, and the disease does not break out in humans.
Hantavirus is a pathogen carried by rodents. In fact, a wide variety of murine rodents carry a range of hantavirus-like animals. One virus, known as hantavirus, appears to have only one species — the deer mouse (deer mice), also known as the deer white-footed mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) — as its primary host, although it does not appear to cause major health problems in deer mice. However, the virus can cause pneumonia-like symptoms in the human body, with a 50% chance of death. It was a familiar disease to the indigenous peoples of the southwestern Americas, and it was probably the cause of the destruction of the mud-built wooden houses of the deceased by the Diné (also known as the Navajo). In recent years, the disease has sparked a small panic in the United States, as deer rats are widespread and common rodents. Since hantavirus does not appear to be able to spread in humans, it is unlikely that it will turn into a real epidemic. Since the Center for Disease Control (CDC) began recording cases, fewer than 200 cases have been registered in the US.
The problems related to the environment and health in the human world basically stem from the close contact between humans and domesticated animals. This prolonged proximity has allowed some diseases to cross barriers between species and transfer from their ungulate or avian hosts to humans.