The pluralism of the theory of mentality and the non-unity described by Meng and Xun's "theory of mentality"
About the Author 丨Wang Zhongjiang, Professor and Doctoral Supervisor of the Department of Philosophy of Peking University, Jiang Scholar Distinguished Professor of the Ministry of Education, Part-time Researcher of mencius Research Institute, President of the Chinese Confucius Society.
The original article is published in Funayama Journal, Issue 04, 2019.
summary
Human nature and the human heart have complexity rather than a single existence. The main setting of Mencius and Xunzi is only one aspect of human nature and human heart. Since the other dimensions of human nature and the human heart cannot be denied, the result is that Mencius and Xunzi, under the main setting, actually set another level of human nature and the human heart in different ways. This may seem contradictory from the tone of their theory of human nature, but from the objective fact that this is not the case. Both Mencius and Xunzi were under the tone and main tone of the theory of sexual goodness and sexual evil, and at the same time acknowledged that there are other aspects of human nature, the human heart, and other aspects that are different from it, and acknowledged that the mind has duality.
Introduction: Questions and Cases
To talk about mencius and Xunzi's theory of mentality, the problem is more specific. However, from the perspective of the Chinese philosophical tradition within Confucianism and even the western traditional philosophy, starting from the fact of the plurality of the theory of human nature and the theory of the human heart in history, we can look at the "theory of mentality" of Mencius and Xunzi, which is also one of the ways to better understand the theory of the mentality of Mencius and Xunzi.
Human nature and the human heart are the existence of complexity, and the main setting of Mencius and Xunzi is only one aspect of human nature and human heart. Since the other dimensions of human nature and the human heart cannot be denied, the result is that Mencius and Xunzi, under the main setting, actually set another level of human nature and the human heart in different ways. This seems to contradict themselves from the tone of their theory of human nature, but it is not contradictory from the objective fact. Because of this, both Mencius and Xunzi are under the tone and main tone of the theory of sexual goodness and sexual evil, and at the same time acknowledge that human nature, there are other aspects that are different from the human heart, and that the mind has duality. These are two theories of human nature and the theory of the human mind ("talking about good and evil" or "talking about evil and good") described in terms of "master and slave" and "strength and weakness". Both focus on and emphasize human nature, the good or evil side of human heart, but consciously or unconsciously, the two introduce and acknowledge the other side of human nature and the difference between the human heart and the human heart.
First, did Xunzi really misunderstand Mencius?
Professor An Lezhe has a paper on mencius's theory of sexual goodness, entitled "Reconstructing Graham's Interpretation of Mencius's "Sex": A Summary of Mencius's Theory of Human Nature"1. The paper discusses Graham's explanation of Mencius's concept of "sex." The thesis begins with a very fierce critique of Xunzi's theory of human nature, arguing that Xunzi completely misunderstood Mencius's view of "sex". Whether Xunzi misunderstood Mencius, of course, can be discussed. But a very strong position can be felt in the paper, that is, it is very disgusting with Xunzi's sexual evil theory.
In fact, Xunzi's criticism of Mencius is not necessarily a misunderstanding, but may also be correct, at least not as simple as Professor An said. Xunzi did have criticisms of Mencius's theory of sexual goodness, and his criticisms were based on different rationale. One of the points is that Xunzi questioned that since human nature is good ("The heart of compassion is shared by all; the heart of shame is shared by everyone; the heart of respect is shared by everyone; the heart of right and wrong is shared by everyone"—Mencius Zhizi Shang"), since the human heart has goodness, why does man lose his own heart ("let go of his heart")? Since man may lose his original mind, this shows that human nature is not good.
According to Xunzi's deduction, if human nature and human heart are good, he will keep this goodness, this goodness. If Mencius's theory of sexual goodness and mental goodness does not mean that people are born with ready-made goodness, but only that people have the ability to be good, that people have the possibility of becoming good, just as Mencius said, "If it is his feelings, he can be good, and it is the so-called goodness" (Mencius, "Mencius, Zhizi Shang"), then the question is why man cannot turn his possibility of being good into reality in the day after tomorrow, why he did not exert his "good roots" and "good energy" in the day after tomorrow, why he did not "do his best" and "do his best", but on the contrary even "let go of his heart". Mencius's explanation is: "If a husband is not good, he is not a sin of talent." According to this, it is not his ability to be unkind (not whether he can or cannot) that people are not good. Why? Mencius had an answer to this, which will be discussed later. If Xunzi is said to be from the fact that people can do good but in fact not for good, or even for evil, it is inferred that human nature is not good, human nature is evil. This is probably not a "complete" misunderstanding of Mencius. I think this is just a manifestation of Xunzi's one-sidedness.
It should be emphasized that Xunzi's criticism of Mencius's theory of sexual goodness is the most powerful one to reflect on Mencius's theory of sexual goodness after suing him (although he did not expand on it), which is related to his model of having a theory of human nature. He criticized Mencius from the standpoint of the evil of human nature. First, he is very targeted; second, he has a relatively full positive argument for the evil of human nature, and his "Sexual Evil" is one of the exemplary texts in the Articles of the Warring States Period that argues for a point of view in a discourse style. Xun Zi argues from the positive side why human nature is evil, and he argues from the negative side why mencius's claim for the goodness of human nature cannot be established. One positive and one negative, its argument has strict logic and Moral rationality. To be sure, this is more clever and rational than Mencius's argument that criticized Yang Zhu for "for me" and Mozi for "loving at the same time." Truth can be constantly revealed in real debates and controversies. Xunzi's questioning and criticism of Mencius's theory of sexual goodness is a very powerful rational reflection and rational criticism. It also makes us think about human nature, the human heart, really only has a "single" "goodness" and "goodness" (the ability to be good)? Let people think about human nature and human heart, is there something other than goodness, other qualities? Let people think about whether other human nature theories also have a certain basis and reason. And this questioning, in turn, is equally applicable to reflecting on Xunzi's setting of human nature.
Second, the multiplicity of human nature and the pluralism of human nature
As emphasized at the beginning, human nature and the human heart are actually very complex existences; similarly, China's theory of human nature is also very pluralistic. 2 Mencius's "theory of sexual goodness" is only one of the various human nature discourses in China. Although Mencius's theory of sexual goodness was later discussed as if it were the subject of Chinese theory of sexuality, this has a certain relationship with the widely popular "Three Character Classic" saying that "at the beginning of man, nature is inherently good." Some people in the academic circles also summarize the theory of Chinese as a whole as "the theory of sexual goodness", which is compared with the "theory of original sin" and the "theory of sexual evil" summarized by the Western theory of human nature, and believes that this is the reason why it is difficult for China to form a modern rule of law. In fact, neither of these generalizations can be true. We see that the theory of human nature in Song Ming's theory is also very complex and diverse. There is sexual monism and there is sexual dualism. The so-called distinction between the nature of heaven and earth and the nature of temperament, the so-called distinction between the Taoist mind and the human heart is the dualism of human nature and the human heart; the so-called theory of conscience is the monism of human nature. The modern Neo-Confucian Liang Shuming inherits the monism of "conscience" and "conscience" of mind.
Different from the Song Ming and Eastern Zhou dynasties, the main feature of the Han and Tang Dynasty human nature theory is that people have different human natures, such as the "three qualities of sex" divides human nature into three levels, the superior human nature is born for good, the medium human nature has the dual nature of good and evil, the inferior human nature is born for evil, and it is believed that the superior human nature does not need to be educated, the inferior human nature cannot be educated, and only the middle human nature has plasticity. This is to emphasize that people are not the same from human nature. I see this theory of human nature as the inequality of human nature. This is a very representative theory of human nature in the Han and Tang dynasties.
The pre-Qin theory of human nature was even more complicated. Wang Chong's "On Heng and Nature" records some different theories of human nature in the pre-Qin period, and its representative figures are Confucius's disciple Shi Shuo (who believes that human nature has good and evil), and he has a "Yangshu". The other disciples of Confucius, "the disciples of the Secret Son, the Lacquer Carving, and the Gongsun Nizi, also talk about the nature of emotions, and are different from the sons of the world, and all say that there is good and evil in nature." "The theory of human nature recorded in mencius and mencius, in addition to the confession and Mencius, there are others. After that, there are Xunzi. According to this, Mencius's theory of sexual goodness was only one of them in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty. The excavated Confucian literature includes the Sexual Self-Appointed and the Five Elements, which also propose their own models of human nature. In short, the Confucian theory of human nature is diverse, and this was also true during the Eastern Zhou Dynasty.
The Taoist theory of virtue and the theory of mental nature is even more complicated. The unearthed document "All Forms of Flow" raises the question of "the heart is invincible", arguing that one of our hearts cannot defeat the other, which emphasizes that we have different psychological consciousnesses, and our hearts are not a single thing. "Pipe • Heart Technique" talks about "there is a heart in the heart", "Pipe Inner Industry" talks about "hiding the heart in the heart", no matter what the specific meaning of the heart is, at least "Pipe" believes that the human heart has different levels, and the human heart has multipleities. The multiplicity of the mind cannot all be acquired without the innate possibility.
From the perspective of Western philosophy, some people advocate that human nature has the possibility of leading to evil, such as Hobbes, Hume, etc. emphasize this aspect of human nature. Hobbes said that there are things in human nature that lead to human struggle, one is competition, the other is suspicion, and the third is honor. It is these things that make man enemies of each other and in war in the state of nature, and "it is strange that human nature can make people so alienated from each other, so prone to aggression and destruction, that it seems strange to a man who has not properly considered these things." [1] 95 If this is not the case, why would he go out with a weapon and go with him, lock the door when he sleeps at night, and lock the chest in the house. Hume pointed out that people are aware that tranquility, order, etc. are necessary for the survival of society, "but despite this need is strong and obvious, our nature is fragile or evil!" It is impossible for people to always walk faithfully and unmistakably on the path of justice. [2] 23 But this is only one view of human nature by Western philosophers, and it cannot be said that Western philosophy mainly advocates that human nature is evil. 3The original sin of man in Christianity, although very influential, is only a kind of human nature. After the Middle Ages, the Western model of human nature was also pluralistic. Greek philosophers spoke of the human soul, and everyone knows that the soul is made up of several parts: desire, emotion, and reason. The soul is by no means a single thing. Greek philosophy also gives people a hierarchy, believing that the hierarchy of people is different because of the different materials made of people, somewhat similar to the "three products of sex" in the Han Dynasty.
In general, the theories of human nature in both the East and the West are complex and pluralistic. Why do people have so many descriptions of human nature? This is mainly because of the complexity of human nature itself. Different philosophers often just highlight different aspects of human nature.
III. Mencius's "Theory of Good and Evil"
Judging from the numerous theories of human nature and the theory of human hearts in the East and the West, Mencius's theory of sexual goodness mainly emphasizes the moral ability of human nature to be good. 4 From the perspective of evolution, this is an ability that man acquires in the process of evolution. The process of human evolution is very long and complex, and it is in this process that man develops a moral conscience. Why are people able to cooperate? Why can people understand each other? Darwin, the main founder of evolution, devoted considerable space to discussion5 in The Origin of Mankind, arguing that human moral ability and cooperative spirit are evolved, which is a very important aspect of human adaptability. Now people genetically study the moral basis of man. 6
Mencius highlighted the ability of man to be good. In this sense, Mencius discovered a fundamental fact in human nature. But Mencius's theory of human nature also has a complicated side. He talked about the distinction between the large and the small. The general idea he spoke of was the moral capacity of man to do good, while the small body was reduced by Mencius to the human senses of the eyes and ears and their functions. "Mencius Zhizi Shang" said: "There are noble and lowly bodies, and there are small and large." There is no small harm to the big, and there is no way to harm the lowly. Those who raise their small are small people, and those who raise them are adults. From its general body to adults, from its small body to small people. According to Mencius's exposition, it seems that what can have a negative impact on the "general body" is only the small body of people's "eyes and ears" feelings, as if it is purely visual noise to see things that should not be seen, and it is auditory noise to listen to things that should not be heard. A dialogue between Gongduzi and Mencius was mainly devoted to this question: "Gongduzi asked: 'Jun is also a man, or an adult, or a villain, why not?' Mencius said: 'From its general body is an adult, and from its small body is a small person.' "Jun is also a man, or from its general body, or from its small body, what is it?"' "The ruler of the eyes and ears does not think, but hides from things." Materialization, that's all. The official of the heart thinks, thinks and gets, and if he does not think, he must not also. Whoever is with us in this heaven is the one who is greater in the first place, and the one who is smaller cannot be taken away. This is just an adult. In fact, it is still the mind that dominates the eyes and ears, and the heart is also playing a role.
The "heart" that Mencius uses as a "general body" actually includes the part of the body that Mencius describes as a "small body." Because a person will be "assured" and lose his original heart, then he has a "heart" of "rest assured". But the "heart" can "ask for its peace of mind", can take the heart back, and restore the original state of the self. The mind that "asks for peace of mind" is the heart that is moral. The "heart" of "letting go" is the unethical mind. In fact, part of the "small body" he said came from the mind, and it cannot simply be attributed to the eyes and ears and senses. Human nature and the human heart do have the ability to do good, but it is not the whole of human nature, not the whole of the human heart. Mencius said that the official of the heart "cannot think without thinking", which is to directly say that the "heart" has the bad aspect of "not thinking". The Mencius Confession says: "Therefore, if you gain its nourishment, nothing will grow; if you lose your nourishment, nothing will disappear." Confucius said: "If you practice, you will survive, but if you give up, you will die; when you come and go, you will not know your hometown." 'But what does the heart say and?"' Mencius said that the mind has the duality of thinking and not thinking, and in this passage Mencius said that the mind has the duality of nurturing and not nurturing, and not doing. However, Mencius emphasized the possibility of human benevolence, and regarded this possibility as a whole of human nature and human heart. But in fact, Mencius's theory of human nature and the theory of the human mind actually contains two things. It is only the nature of goodness and the mind that is the main and fundamental side of his theory of human nature, the "manifest" side, while the side of the mind that is evil is the subordinate side to him, the hidden, trance side. It can be called "the theory of good and evil."
IV. XunZi's "Theory of Evil and Good"
Xunzi, in contrast to Mencius, spoke of "human evil", which actually highlighted the other side of human nature. Xun Zi's sexual evil theory does not mean that people are born evil, he only says that people have innate sensual desires, and if this desire is not well restrained and regulated, it may cause the evil consequences of competition between people, causing social conflicts and disorderly evil consequences. In order to avoid this situation, for people's innate desires and desires, Xunzi emphasized that people need to use moral norms such as etiquette and righteousness to educate and regulate, and people need to transform their sexual hypocrisy. But the question is, if human nature is purely the possibility of evil, then why can he turn sexual hypocrisy into a false? Here, Xunzi places special emphasis on the role of saints. But a saint is also a man, and in principle his human nature is also evil, so why can he become a saint? Why is it that a saint can educate others, and why can he become a saint without being indoctrinated? Xun Zi emphasized that the saint can study hard the day after tomorrow, but why can he study hard the day after tomorrow, and why can't others? At this point, according to Xunzi's theory of monohumanism, in fact, this cannot be explained.
The problem is that human nature does not actually have the possibility of only being evil, as Xunzi thinks, but also the possibility of being good. Mencius emphasized the latter, while Xunzi emphasized the former. The flaw in Mencius's theory of sexual goodness, which we have already pointed out, is that his theory of human nature actually includes the possibility that human nature is also evil. Xunzi is the same. People have always been confused by the two passages in the book "Xunzi". One passage is said in the "Xunzi Royal System": "Water and fire have qi but no life, grass and trees are born and ignorant, animals and animals have knowledge but no righteousness, people have qi, there is life, there is knowledge, and there is righteousness, so it is the most noble in the world." The force is not like an ox, and the walk is not like a horse, and the cow and horse are used, why not? A: People can be a group, but they can't be a group. Another passage is said in the Xunzi Feixiang section: "The reason why people are human beings, why have they been?" A: Discernment by its own. Hunger and desire to eat, cold and warm, labor and desire to rest, good and evil, is born of man and has, is the one who does not wait, is the same as Yu and Jie. However, the reason why man is human is not that he is bipedal and hairless, but also discerned by his discernment. Imabari laughs, also bipedal, and Mao also, but the gentleman sips his soup and eats his fistula. The reason why the old man is human is that he is not special because of his bipedal and hairless, but also because he has discernment. Husbands and beasts have fathers and sons but no father and son, and there is no difference between men and women. Therefore, humanity is not discerning. According to the first paragraph, man is different from water, fire, grass, trees, animals, etc., because man is a comprehensive being, who is not only angry, alive, and knowledgeable, but also righteous. Xunzi does not directly tell us whether this essence of man is innate or acquired. But from the logic of this passage, we can clearly see that Xunzi talks about man's nature in comparison with the inherent nature of other things, and cannot regard it as purely acquired. This nature of man is "righteous", that man is able to "fit in the group". XunZi's second paragraph is also very important. What is the nature of man? Xun Zi believed that human nature did not lie in the desires that everyone was born with, nor in the fact that people have two legs and no hair, but because people can distinguish, and people have a "discriminating mind." This discernment is both a rational discernment and a moral discernment. Similarly, since Xunzi emphasizes human characteristics by comparing man with other animals, this "discerning" ability of man mentioned here by Xunzi is also innate, and it is also an innate ability of man, not exactly what man acquires. Another example, the Xunzi Sexual Evil chapter says: "Although the lady has a beautiful nature and a discerning heart, she will seek a wise teacher and do things, and choose a good friend and a friend." The phrase "man has a beautiful nature and a discerning mind" in this passage obviously refers to the innate ability of the human heart, which can prove that the above-mentioned Xunzi said that the person "has discernment" is that man has an innate ability. The Xunzi Zhengming chapter on the relationship between sex, emotion, heart, and hypocrisy says: "The likes and dislikes of sex are likes, sorrows, sorrows, and sorrows. But the heart chooses the name of the worry. It is false to be able to move for the sake of the mind. Accumulate thoughts, be able to practice, and then become false. Different from the above, the "mind" of "choosing for it" and "acting for it" mentioned here by Xunzi mainly emphasizes the cultivation and cultivation of the mind in the day after tomorrow, and its basis can also be to exert it and strengthen it according to the innate moral ability of the mind.
Xun zi advocated that human nature is evil and believed that people are righteous, discerning, and able to fit in. This can be explained by the flaws and contradictions in the Xunzi theory of human nature. But it can also be explained that Xunzi's emphasis on human evil is only an aspect of human nature, or he only regards sexual evil as the main characteristic of human beings. But human nature is not a single thing, if it is regarded as a single thing, it is easy to produce theoretical contradictions, and it is not easy to explain why people's behavior in reality is good or bad. This is true of Mencius, and it is also true of Xunzi. Mencius mainly emphasized the ability to do good in human nature, so that he could not explain very well why people have the problem of "evil". He attributed the cause of evil to the small body of man," but the effect of the ear and the eye cannot be separated from the action of the heart, so evil is also related to the human heart. Mencius had actually revealed that the "mind" that "does not think" will "let go of its heart." Xunzi, in contrast to Mencius, attributed human nature to man's sensual desires, thus emphasizing the tendency of human nature to be evil, which in fact reduced human nature mainly to what Mencius called the "small body". Because of this, he could not satisfactorily explain why a saint could become a saint, why he did not need to be indoctrinated to be willing to learn and become a saint. In fact, this is because man also has what Mencius called the "general body," that is, the innate ability to do good. Xun Zi's two paragraphs actually reveal this. Xu Fuguan put forward Xunzi's sexual disgusting goodness theory. Liang Tao wanted to overcome the contradiction of Xunzi's theory of human nature, and was influenced by Xu Fuguan to explain this problem with the expression "sexual disgust and goodness". Actually, this cannot be true. Because we cannot think that the "sex" that Xunzi said is all evil, and the heart that Xunzi said is all good. Xu Fuguan also admitted that the "heart" that Xunzi said also refers to the side of desire such as good profit. 7
For example, in "Xunzi Sexual Evil", it is said: "If the husband is lustful, the ears are good, the mouth is good, the heart is good, the bones and skin are good and happy, and they are all born of human love." The "mind" here, like other sensual desires, is a congenital mind that has the potential to produce evil. A similar usage also appears in the "Wang Ba" chapter: "Lady's love, eyes desire to be colorful, ears to want to be loud, mouth to taste, nose to smell, heart to be full of desire." ----------------- The same passage also says: "The love of the old man, the taste is good, and the smell is mo mei yan; the ear is good, and the vocal music is mo da yan; the eyes are lustful, and the article is complicated, and the women are not public; the body is good, and the peace and quiet are not happy; the heart is good, and the valley is thick." The "mind" spoken of in both places, like other sensual desires, is something that has the potential to lead to evil. Because of this, the Xunzi Persuasion emphasizes that just as the eyes and ears must be moral, it is also necessary to make the heart moral: "Let the eyes be not desireless to see, so that the ears are not desireless, so that the mouth is not desireless, so that the mouth is not desireless, and the heart is not desireless." ”
Xunzi said that the mind has good and evil, and both are related to the nature of the heart that Xunzi said. Just as Mencius said that the mental nature has a high degree of unity, xunzi's mental nature also has unity. The "mind" that Xunzi spoke of is obviously not pure "goodness", because the so-called natural sensual desires, without the action of the mind, cannot occur at all. This is an ethical manifestation of the "dualism of mind and body". The body and mind are unified and identical. Mencius and Xunzi each emphasized different aspects of human nature and the human heart, but they attributed the possibility of good and evil to one aspect of the body and mind. Song Mingli distinguished human nature into the nature of destiny and temperament, which can actually be said to be a reconciliation of Mencius's theory of sexual goodness and Xunzi's sexual evil. Before Meng Xun, Shi Shuo had already put forward the "theory of good and evil" in human nature (in contrast, The Zi put forward the "theory of no good and no evil"), believing that human nature is inherently neutral, and good and evil are produced by man after tomorrow. Mencius and Xunzi each derived an aspect of Shishuo's dual humanity and turned it into the root of human nature.
Conclusion: The Duality and Duality of Mental Nature
Human nature and the human heart have complexity rather than a single existence, and people discuss this in the same way. From the perspective of early Chinese tradition, as Wang Chong pointed out: "From Mencius down to Liu Zizheng, Hongru Bosheng, smell a lot." However, in terms of emotional nature, there is no certainty. But Wang Chong is more inclined to accept Shi Shuo's view, believing that human nature has two sides of good and evil, rather than only one side: "Only Shi Shuo and Gongsun Nizi's disciples are quite righteous." In this way, things are easy to know, and the Tao is difficult to discuss. The book of Feng WenMao, prosperous as glory, restored drama talk, sweet as honey, may not be true. In reality, human nature has good and evil, and the Jews have both high and low. High can not be lowered, down can not be high. There is no good or evil in sex, and it is said that talents are not superior or inferior. Nature is ordained, and the same reality is also. Life has nobility, and sex has good and evil. Sex is said to be neither good nor evil, but it is said that human life is not noble or inferior. "Here Wang Chong employs talents with superiority, fate with nobility, analogy with good and evil, emphasizing that human nature is born with good and evil, just as people are born with superiority and inferiority, and there is nobility in their innate destiny, although there is no strict logical relationship between them.
Mencius and Xunzi actually saw two sides of human nature, but in principle they only emphasized and highlighted one of them. Nowadays, people study human nature and human hearts in a very diverse way, and intersectional studies have also emerged. For example, genetically looking for the moral basis of human beings and the root of evil, or emphasizing that people are born with self-interest and self-interest, or thinking that people are born with altruism and cooperative nature, or thinking that both. If the claims of the first two are entirely exclusive (self-interest and altruism), then it is still difficult to establish human nature as a single. I think that human nature and the human heart are a complex existence, and we can emphasize or highlight one aspect, but it is not possible to regard it as the only aspect.
bibliography
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[2] Hume. On the Origins of Government∥ Selected Political Papers of Hume. ZHANG Ruoheng, trans. Beijing:The Commercial Press,1993.]
exegesis:
1 This article is a revised version of the report at the Mencius Forum, a round table of the 24th World Congress on Philosophy.
2 See Mencius Studies, Vol. 1, China Literature and History Publishing House, 2018.
3 See Zhang Dainian's Outline of Chinese Philosophy, China Social Sciences Press, 1982, pp. 183-253.
4 See Zhang Hao's Dark Consciousness and Democratic Tradition, in Zhang Hao's Selected Works, Shanghai Education Publishing House, 2002, pp. 1-24.
5 For a discussion of Mencius's theory of mental nature, see "The Study of Mencius's Mental Nature" edited by Jiang Wensi and An Lezhe, Social Science Press, 2005.
6 The Origin of Mankind (Part 1 and 2), Darwin, The Commercial Press, 2017, pp. 197-227.
7 See Christopher Bohm' The Origin of Morality: The Evolution of Virtue, Altruism, and Shame, translated by Jia Yongmin and Fu Ruirong, Zhejiang University Press, 2015; Simon Barron-Cohen, The Science of Evil: On the Origin of Empathy and Cruelty, translated by Gao Tianyu, Guangxi Normal University Press, 2018.
8 See Xu Fuguan's "The History of Chinese Sex: Pre-Qin Chapters", Shanghai: Shanghai Sanlian Bookstore, 2001, p. 213.
The source | Shanghai Confucianism