#点亮真知计划 #
On January 29, 1901, the Qing court issued an edict on changing the law in Xi'an, deciding to implement the new policy, asking the ministers above the superintendent to put forward reform proposals on the history of the dynasty, the people's livelihood of the officials, and the military finance, and carried out the new policy with great fanfare. The Qing government's determination to implement the New Deal is no accident, but has a profound historical background and reasons.
On the one hand, the eight-nation alliance invaded China and the signing of the Treaty of Mo Xin ugly, so that the Qing court suffered an unprecedented heavy blow, its feudal rule was crumbling, under the unprecedented serious crisis of rule, both the supreme ruler of the Qing Dynasty, Cixi, and ordinary bureaucrats were more soberly aware of the necessity of reform, and with the unprecedented seriousness of the national crisis, reform and strengthening are the common voice of all strata of society. In order to please the foreign colonists and win over the hearts and minds of the people, a top-down new deal is imperative.
On the other hand, after the signing of the "Xinugu Treaty," the Qing government was completely reduced to a tool for the great powers to rule China, and the imperialist powers, which were eyeing the tiger, temporarily stopped their armed aggression against China and adopted the so-called preservationist policy, so that the Qing government continued to exist. This provided a relatively peaceful domestic and international environment for the Qing government to implement reforms, and the Western powers also gave the Qing government certain support for reforms based on their own interests.
On March 3, 1901 (April 21, 1901), the Qing government set up the Supervision and Administration Office as a special agency for the overall planning and implementation of the New Deal, and sent Yi Xi, Li Hongzhang (after Li's death, yuan shikai was replaced), Rong Lu, Wang Wenshao, and others as the ministers of state supervision. The date of implementation of the new politics can be divided into two stages, the first stage is 1901-1905, which is a regular reform, and the second stage is the 1906-1911 political reform with the preparatory project as the core. Its content is roughly as follows:
First of all, the reform of political institutions is mainly to add new institutions and abolish redundant officials. In July 1901, the Prime Minister's Ministry of State Affairs was changed to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, before the 6 departments, in September 1903, the Ministry of Commerce was established, and in December 1903, the Department of Commerce was established, and the Governor of The Governor of Hubei, Yunnan, and Guangdong Provinces was successively abolished. Rectify the rule of officials externally, and stop making donations and other bad rules.
Second, the new army should be organized and trained, and the police administration should be supervised. In August 1901, the Qing court ordered the suspension of the martial arts examination nationwide, and in September ordered all provinces to set up armed training schools to eliminate the old army and train the new army. In 1903, a training office was set up in the Beijing Division as a place for heavy military training, with Yi Li as the prime minister and Yuan Shikai as the meeting, and various localities set up military training supervisory offices to supervise and supervise military training affairs, and the governors, generals, and all provinces were in charge of military training affairs. The establishment of the police administration is also an important part of the new policy, and has achieved good results. In August 1902, Yuan Shikai created the Baoding Police Bureau modeled on Western Law, recruited 3,000 patrol policemen, trained by Zhao Bingjun, and set up a police academy to train patrol police backbones to promote police administration. Later, Yuan Shikai founded the Tianjin Sixiang Patrol Police, which was the official beginning of China's police administration.
Third, abolish the imperial examination, implement a new academic system and set up a new style of school. The abolition of the imperial examination and the revitalization of education and education are other important contents of the New Deal. Zhang Zhidong and Yuan Shikai were the leaders of the late Western Affairs Movement, and Yishi was keen on establishing a new style of education, and became the advocates and decision-makers who abolished the imperial examination and built the school. Under their influence, the Qing court issued a series of edicts and regulations to reform the imperial examination and build schools from 1901 to 1905. On January 10, 1902, zhang Baixi was appointed as the minister of management of Beijing Normal University, and on August 15, 1902, the "Statute of the King Ding Academy" drafted by Zhang Baixi was promulgated, which was not implemented because the academic system was not yet perfected. On January 13, 1904, the Qing court officially promulgated Zhang Baixi's "Statutes of the Gongding Academy" revised on the basis of the "Statutes of the King Ding Academy", also known as the "Zhending School System". The school system is divided into three sections and seven levels, and the education period is about 29 to 30 years. The promulgation of the decoction system marks the establishment of China's modern education system and purpose. In September 1905, Yuan Shikai and Zhang Zhidong again played a role in abolishing the imperial examination system, and since then, the imperial examination system, which has lasted for more than a thousand years, has been completely abolished.
In the educational reform of the New Deal, the achievements of industrial education have been quite remarkable, and a new round of studying in Japan and the United States has been set off, and a large number of scientific and technological, legal and political education, and military talents have been trained. Finally, revitalizing commerce and rewarding industry is another important part of the New Deal. On February 23, 1902, the Qing court issued an edict declaring that industry and commerce were the foundation of prosperity and strength, and instructed the governors of various provinces to handle foreign arrangements in accordance with local conditions. In September 1903, the Qing government set up the Ministry of Commerce, which was responsible for commerce, industry and mining, railways, currency, banking and other undertakings, and practiced the policy of guaranteeing business. In 1905, the Qing government set up a trademark office and promulgated various laws and regulations such as the Articles of Association of the Reward Company, the Articles of Association for Trademark Registration, and the Provisional Charter for Mining, in an effort to revitalize agriculture, industry, and commerce.
With the progress of the New Deal at the end of the Qing Dynasty, the increasingly active national bourgeoisie could no longer satisfy the gradual economic and cultural reforms with the Qing government. In 1903, Zhang Xiao, one of the representatives of the bourgeois elite, traveled east to Japan to envy its constitutional form of government. After he returned to China, he persuaded Zhang Zhidong to ask for a constitution. Later Zhang Zhidong and Yuan Shikai jointly urged the Qing court to implement the constitution, at the same time, the revolutionary activities of the revolutionaries became more and more frequent, and forced by the internal and external pressure of the reformists and revolutionaries, the Qing government decided to implement the constitution. During this period, the focus was on the adjustment and establishment of government agencies, the reform of the official system, the formulation of the constitution, the formation of a cabinet, and the formation of a new army.
Adjust and increase the number of central and local organs, and define the official system. On May 8, 1911, a new cabinet system was promulgated, the Military Aircraft Division was withdrawn, and a responsible cabinet was established, and Prince Qing was appointed as the prime minister of the cabinet, which consisted of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of Civil Affairs, the Faculty of Education, the Ministry of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce, the War Department, and the Ministry of the Navy. There are 13 members of the cabinet, of which 9 are Manchus and 7 are members of the royal family, so it is called the imperial cabinet. Military Advisory Offices were also established, later renamed military advisory offices, equivalent to national staffs.
In 1906, the provincial consultative bureaus changed the provincial academic administration to the department of academic envoys, and the judicial envoys were replaced by the judicial envoys, and the trial halls at all levels were added, which were specially designed for trials, and later there were patrol police and persuasion departments, which were in charge of police administration and agricultural, industrial and commercial affairs. In October 1909, the provinces successively set up consultative bureaus, most of which were political representatives of the upper echelons of the middle bourgeoisie, with the constitutionalists occupying the majority, and many leading figures of the constitutionalists were elected as speakers. The establishment of this body has provided a legal position for the activities of the constitutionalists, and has a certain legislative and supervisory power in the decision of the state budget, final accounts, and codes, and has a certain restraining effect on the monarchy.
Legal reform. In 1902, the Qing government set up the Revised Law Museum, and sent Shen Jiaben and Wu Tingfang as ministers to revise the law and preside over the revision of the law. Successively promulgated the "Company Law", "Bankruptcy Law", "Outline of the Constitution of the King", "The Current Criminal Law of the Great Qing Dynasty", and "The Great Fresh Criminal Law", which formally adopted the laws of the Western bourgeoisie, but the content was strongly feudal, but it still had a certain progressive significance.
Local self-government is an important part of the reform of the current political system and an important part of the preparation of the constitution. In 1908, the Qing court promulgated the "Statute of Local Autonomy in Towns and Townships" to promote local autonomy throughout the country, and its extensive development mainly relied on the transformation of local gentry and merchants to the bourgeoisie, who promoted the development of industry and commerce, new-style education and cultural undertakings through participating in local autonomy activities, and also enhanced their own awareness of modernization, and eventually became important members of the Chinese national bourgeoisie.
In summary, we can clearly see that the New Deal at the end of the Qing Dynasty was an extremely extensive reform movement, which not only involved economic, military, legal, cultural, educational and other reforms, but also involved the reform of China's traditional political system. Although various reform measures have been greatly reduced in actual implementation, their role in promoting China's modernization is self-evident.
Politically, it broke the traditional six-part industrial system in China for thousands of years, and was a major change and major progress in China's political system, especially the preparatory constitution in the late New Deal, at least, china's political system began to move closer to the bourgeois democratic model of separation of powers.
Economically, the New Deal promoted the development of National Capitalism in China, and it can be seen from the above that the Qing government promulgated a series of economic policies and laws and regulations to support the development of industry and commerce during the New Deal, and cultivated a large number of new talents who were interested in developing Chinese capitalism through various career educations. The New Deal also promoted the modernization of China's military, judiciary, and education. In particular, the abolition of the examination system in the New Deal education reform has fundamentally affected the stratification of modern Chinese society and disintegrated the traditional four-people system, which has a huge and far-reaching impact on the social structure and even values of modern China.
Finally, the New Deal at the end of the Qing Dynasty accelerated the advent of accelerated collapse and revolution. Undoubtedly, the direct and fundamental purpose of the Qing government's implementation of the New Deal was to alleviate the crisis of its feudal rule and maintain feudal rule. But in fact, the implementation of the New Deal deepened the crisis of its rule. On the one hand, the Qing government worked hard to strengthen feudal rule in the process of implementing the New Deal; on the other hand, the contradictions between the central government and the local powerful factions and the bourgeois constitutionalists; on the other hand, in various reforms, the Qing government cultivated a large number of intellectuals, officials, and soldiers with new ideas and new concepts, especially the new army trained by the Qing government, which became the backbone of the destruction of the feudal rule of the Qing Dynasty, which it did not expect.