Author: Hu Dekun, senior professor of Wuhan University, Wang Dangui, doctoral candidate of school of history of Wuhan University
Summary: During the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, the waters off Singapore were one of the places through which the Maritime Silk Road passed. After the 7th century AD, ancient Singapore, which was a vassal state of Srivijaya, has begun to take shape as a port, and is one of the necessary stops and trading stations of the Maritime Silk Road. The decline of Srivijaya's death and the prosperity of the Maritime Silk Road of the Yuan Dynasty directly contributed to the rise of ancient Singapore in the late 13th and 14th centuries to become a prosperous international port and regional commercial center. The changes in China's maritime trade policy during the Ming Dynasty directly led to the obliteration of the ancient Singapore port after the 14th century. The rise and fall of Singapore's early ports was closely linked to the Maritime Silk Road.
It is generally believed that the modern port of Singapore originated from the Raffles Free Trade Port policy in 1819, and the "early port" in this article refers to the port of Singapore before 1819 compared to the "modern port of Singapore" after 1819. Regarding the early port of Singapore, there are few scholars in the academic circles at home and abroad who have written specifically, and local scholars in Singapore have only pointed out that Singapore in the late 13th and early 14th centuries was already an international port with prosperous trade when studying the early history of Singapore. (1) As for when Singapore's early ports were formed and why they declined, few scholars have touched on them. This article intends to use the historical materials of ancient books from the East and the West and the archaeological discoveries in Singapore to make a preliminary discussion on this issue.
The waters off Singapore are one of the places through which the Maritime Silk Road passes
Singapore, located in the waters of the Peninsula and Archipelago (2) of Southeast Asia, guards the throat of the Strait of Malacca, the main sea traffic route connecting the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean, and is not only a crossroads of maritime traffic in Southeast Asia, but also a navigation hub through which maritime trade between the East and the West must pass.
Early accounts of Singapore's ancient names include "Pizong" in Bangu's Book of Han-Geography in 110 BC and "Puluo China" in the 3rd century AD Wu Shi Foreign Traditions and Funan Tu Customs. During the Han Dynasty, China's shipbuilding and navigation industry made significant progress and mastered monsoon knowledge. The General Yang Shuping of the Fifth Year (112 BC) of emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty and the general Han Ruifu of Henghai in the sixth year of the Yuan Ding Dynasty can infer from their marching routes (from north to south) and seasons (autumn and winter) that they sailed using the northeast monsoon. (3) In the first year of the Yuan Dynasty (110 BC) during the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, China opened up the South China Sea route of the Maritime Silk Road from the sea to India. Ban Gu's Geographical Records of the Book of Han records this route. (4) Chinese sea vessels depart from the Leizhou Peninsula, take advantage of the northeast monsoon, travel south along the southeast of the Indochina Peninsula and the east coast of the Malay Peninsula, and when the wind changes direction, the Duyuan Kingdom crosses the Strait of Singapore and the Strait of Malacca, and then uses the southwest monsoon to go north. On the return voyage, it departs from southeastern India, sails for eight months to "Pi Dzong", and then travels north for two months to reach Vietnam. Regarding "Pizon", it is generally agreed that it does refer to the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula near the Singapore Strait. (5) Therefore, the singapore waters should have been one of the places through which the early Maritime Silk Road routes traveled.
During the Three Kingdoms period, the shipbuilding industry of Dongwu, located on the southeast coast, was developed, with both warships "Qianchong" and "Fighting Ships" and the largest "Building Ships". Its ruler, Sun Quan, sent powerful fleets to visit overseas many times, the most important of which was to send Xuanhua to Zhu Ying and Zhonglang Kangtai to Funan. According to volume 787 of the Taiping Imperial Records, "Wu Shi Kangtai was a middle lang, and on the table was the "Funan Tu Customs": Zhili was heading east, extremely rugged, there were residents on the seashore, everyone had a tail of five or six inches, the name Puluo China, its custom cannibalism. The same book volume 791 records, "The Folklore of Funan Tujue says: There is Puluozhong in the east of The Shuli, and if everyone has a tail, it is five or six inches long, and its custom cannibalism." (6) Xu Yunqiao examines that "Puluozhong" is Singapore, "Puluo" is the transliteration of the Malay word Pulau, which means "island", "Zhong" is the consonant of the Malay Ujong, which means "end", and "Puluozhong" is Pulau Ujong, meaning "island at the end of the peninsula" (7), which obviously refers to Singapore at the end of the Malay Peninsula. (8) The Singapore Yearbook published by the Singapore government and Singapore textbooks share this view. "Puluo China" is contained in the "Funan Tu customs", perhaps "Puluo China" is a vassal state of Funan, but "its customary cannibalism", has not yet been civilized, may be the early settlement of the Tang Dynasty "Luoyue people" (Hairen). Of course, whether the people of "Puluo China" have a tail of five or six inches long and whether they really have the custom of eating people cannot be verified. But whether the Han Dynasty opened the Maritime Silk Road or Eastern Wu sent envoys to Funan, the ancient Coastal Singapore sea was one of the places it passed through during its voyage, perhaps only as a signpost on the voyage. By the Tang and Song dynasties, ancient Singapore, as a vassal state of Srivijaya, was located in the middle of the maritime trade route between the East and the West, adjacent to the southern mouth of the Strait of Malacca, and became a stop and supply place for Arab, Indian and Chinese merchants when they crossed the Strait of Malacca, laying the basic conditions for the formation of the early port.
Ii. A transit point for trade between east and west: the prototype of the port during srivijaya
In the 7th century, Srivijaya, the ancient state of Sumatra, rose to prominence as a political and commercial empire. Between 672 and 689, Srivijaya's forces expanded from the heart of his capital, Palembang, covering the entire Strait of Malacca. (9) According to the 1030 Tanjor inscription, Srivijaya died in 1025 and was attacked by the Chola dynasty of South India and gradually declined. (10) In 1275, Srivijaya died and was sacked by Singhasari, East Java, completely losing control of the Strait of Malacca. (11) Thus, it can be inferred that the Strait of Malacca (including Singapore) was under the control of Srivijaya's death, roughly equivalent to China's Tang and Song dynasties. The excavation of ancient Tang and Song dynasty historical books and a large number of Tang and Song coins in Singapore confirms that ancient Singapore was not only a trade transit station on the Maritime Silk Road, but also began to take shape as a port.
(1) The death of Srivijaya was a trade kingdom through which the Maritime Silk Road must pass
After Srivijaya's death, srilaparian, he maintained a friendly tributary trade with the Chinese dynasty. According to Chinese historical records, from 695 to 742, Srivijaya sent six missions to China to present musicians, dwarfs and colorful parrots to China, and the Chinese emperor awarded the king the honorary title of thanks. There was a period of discontinuity until 904 AD, when Sri Buddha died and China was restored, and Chinese historical records changed the name of Srivijaya to Srivijaya. (12) From 904 to 983, Srivijaya sent envoys to China 11 times. (13) While maintaining closer contact with China, Srivijaya also continued to expand outwards, controlling the Straits of Malacca and Sunda, which connect the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea. At this time, the Strait of Malacca and the Strait of Sunda were the only way for China to communicate with India, Persia and Arabia, and merchants from India, Arabia, Persia and other countries from the West, as well as merchants from China to India and Arabia, had to pass through this passage. Ships passing east and west moored at the ports of Srivijaya, either to replenish fresh water and food, or to wait for the monsoon winds to continue sailing. During the period of mooring, Eastern and Western merchants traded locally.
As an ancient maritime trade power, Srivijaya has always pursued a strong overseas trade policy. Ports within srilapa's sphere of influence (including those in the straits of Malacca) were not allowed to trade with foreign merchants unless permissioned by sriwizard rulers. (14) The Southern Song Dynasty Zhou Dynasty recorded that "those who do not enter their country will be killed by all those who do not enter their country." (15) Zhao Rushi of Quanzhou Port City in the Southern Song Dynasty recorded: "Its country is in the middle of the sea, strangling the throat of the boats and cars, and the ancient use of iron cables is limited, in case he steals, manipulates the organic, and if the merchant arrives, he will indulge it." ...... If the merchants do not enter, they will go out of the ship to fight together, hoping to die, and the boat of the country will be in full swing. (16) Taxes and other trade-related sources of wealth from the seaport flowed into the pockets of Sriva's deceased rulers and a few nobles. (17) The Arabs record that the rulers of Srivijaya demanded from the Jews a sum of 20,000 dinars per ship as a transit tax, and nabi could continue to sail to China. It is said that mahabharata levied a tribute of up to two hundred man gold per day, worth six hundred dirhams per man. (18) In addition to Jewish and Arab ships, China was also a major target of Srivijaya's trade. With tight control over the trade routes between the East and the West, Srivijaya developed into a trading kingdom on the Maritime Silk Road.
(2) Medieval Singapore in the Tang and Song Dynasties: A transit point on the Maritime Silk Road
During the Tang Dynasty, China's shipbuilding technology made significant progress. Chinese ships are known for their large hull, large load capacity, strong structure and strong resistance to wind and waves, and Chinese crews are known for being good at driving and good at using trade winds. Moreover, the Tang Dynasty changed the policy of "emphasizing agriculture and suppressing commerce" since the Qin and Han Dynasties, and implemented active foreign trade, especially encouraging the development of trade in the South China Sea, which is far away and has no security threat. Historical records record that direct sea traffic was also achieved between China and Arabia. Since the second year of Emperor Gaozong's reign (651), Arab envoys have been sent to the Tang Dynasty 37 times. (19)
During the reign of Emperor Dezong of Tang (785-805), the chancellor Jia Tan recorded the "Guangzhou Tonghai Yi Road" on the Maritime Silk Road: "Five more days to Haijiao, the people of Bo called it 'quality'. A hundred miles from north to south, the north shore is the Kingdom of Luoyue, the south bank is the country of Buddha, the country of Buddha is the country of death, the east water of the country of Buddha is four or five days, to the country of Haling, the largest of the south and central states. On the third day of the Ge Ge monk's kingdom, on the island in the northwest corner of the Buddha's death, the people of the country were rich and violent, and the riders were afraid. On its northern shore is the kingdom of Luo. (20) According to Bohehe, the above-mentioned "North Shore Lo Viet Kingdom" is Johor in the Malay Peninsula, including Singapore. "Luo Yue", the transliteration of the Wu language "La-uat", was the first state established by the indigenous "Sea People" (Orang Laut) on the Malay Peninsula at that time. (21) Archaeologist Han Huai admitted that "Luoyue" is the consonant of the word after the Alias Orange Laut (Hairen) of the Jakun people, which is very close to the Minnan dialect la-wat, so Luoyue must be Singapore. (22) Xu Yunqiao agreed with Han Huaijun that "Luo Yue" was a state established by the proto-Malays, and that Singapore might have been included in the "Luo Yue" state at that time. (23) It can be seen that scholars generally agree that "Luoyue" is the ancient name of the island of Singapore during the Tang Dynasty. The German sinologist Friedrich Hirth said from E.G. Genini that it was the Strait of Singapore, and the Singapore scholar Qiu Xinmin believed that "quality" was the Strait of Singapore, including Singapore, corresponding to the Malay language Oflat (Shek Lat). (24) According to the Records of Chinese and Indian Insights, compiled in the 851 Report of Arab Merchants, the voyage from Arabia to Guangzhou passed through the Strait of Salaht (i.e., Salat, Selat in Malay), the Strait of Malacca. (25) It can be seen that maritime traffic and trade between China and Arabia must pass through the Strait of Malacca.
According to the History of Singapore by the Englishman Haphre Pearson, the Arabs understood the mystery of the monsoon (26) "in the 4th century AD". They found that sailing using the southwest monsoon could cross the Indian Ocean through the strait between Malaya and Sumatra to the China Sea and the Spice Islands. Then wait for the northeast monsoon and return from the original road. "(27) Depending on their sailing routes and monsoon wind direction, Arab traders were bound to pass through the island of Singapore." After the Arabs, the people of the Coromandel coast of southern India followed." (28) According to Pearson' description, Arab and Indian merchant ships, often in need of fresh water during their voyages in the narrow Strait of Malacca, anchored in nearby settlements to replenish their supplies, and then sailed to China. Therefore, the "Luo yue kingdom" adjacent to the southern mouth of the Strait of Malacca is likely to be the stopover and supply place for Arab and Indian merchants. Book 222 of the New Book of Tang records: "Luo Yue is five thousand miles north of the sea and southwest of Gogu Luo. The merchants and merchants gathered together, and the customs and the fallen Bowl bottom are the same. When you take the boat to Guangzhou, the state will smell it. (29) It can be seen that ancient Singapore in this period was already a port where merchant ships gathered, and merchant ships sailed to Guangzhou every year. As mentioned earlier, the merchant ships here come not only from China in the East, but also from India and Arabia in the West.
After the establishment of the Song Dynasty in the 10th century AD, China's navigation and shipbuilding technology was significantly improved, the compass was widely used in navigation, and the maritime trade was further prospered, especially during the Southern Song Dynasty, the country's political and economic center moved south, making overseas trade reach an unprecedented boom. Against this backdrop, the Song Dynasty not only maintained a developed tributary trade with Srivijaya, but also actively encouraged non-governmental trade, allowing Chinese merchants to trade at sea. Chinese private sea vessels can go to sea to trade as long as they obtain a certificate issued by the Municipal Shipping Department. During this period, Chinese ceramics were sold in large quantities overseas, and Srivijaya was an important transit point on the Maritime Silk Road. According to the "History of Song Dynasty" and the "Song Huijiao", it is mentioned that "the countries that came to trade in Guangzhou, Ming, Hangzhou and other states had Three Buddhas and other countries, and passed through the goods." (30) The Southern Song Dynasty ancient book "Zhu Fan Zhi" not only records the trade situation of Srivijaya, but also clearly records the trade of "Lingya Gate".
According to the "Zhu Fan Zhi And Three Buddhas QiGuo", "The Three Buddhas Qi, between Zhenla and Jianbo, guanzhou has five out of ten, just south of the spring, the winter moon is downwind and the rest of the moon is yufang to Lingyamen, and one-third of the business begins to enter its country." (31) According to Su Jikuo's research, "Lingya Gate is the Dragon Tooth Gate in the ancient Yuan Dynasty text "Island Yi Zhiluo", which indeed refers to ancient Singapore", that is, Keppel Harbor in the Singapore Strait, because it has rocks standing in the west entrance, the mountain gate is opposite, and it is as strong as the Dragon Gate, which is called by Chinese navigators. (32) The "Lingya Gate", located at the southern mouth of the Strait of Malacca, as a dependency of Srivijaya's sphere of influence, must also implement its strong foreign trade policy, and ships between the East and the West will either voluntarily or forced to stop here and carry out part of the trade. According to the "Zhu Fan Zhi Sanfo QiGuo", "the land produces: Yao Yao, brain, Shen Su temporary incense, coarse ripe incense, descending incense, cloves, sandalwood, cardamom, and there are pearls, frankincense, rose water, gardenia flowers, lacta navels, myrrh, aloe vera, Awei, wood incense, Suhe oil, ivory, coral trees, cat's eyes, amber, cloth, sword, etc., all of which are produced by the great food of the country." Merchants and traders use gold, silver, urnware, brocade, valerian silk, sugar, iron, wine, rice, dried ginger, rhubarb, camphor and other things. (33) Ancient Singapore during Srivijaya's death was not only a must-pass place on the Maritime Silk Road, but also a transit point for maritime trade between China and India and between China and Arabia.
(3) A large number of Tang and Song dynasty copper coins were unearthed in Singapore: a transit station on the Maritime Silk Road
On 3 February 1822, Raffles and John Crawfurd, the second resident of Singapore, found a considerable amount of Chinese copper coins in ancient architectural sites on Fort Canning, including those minted during the era of Emperor Zhenzong (998-1022), Renzong (1023-1063) and Shenzong (1068-1085) of the Northern Song Dynasty. One of them is also the Qiande era name. (34) Since 1984, the National Museum of Singapore has initiated the Fort Canning Archaeological Survey Project, and john N. Miksic, a well-known archaeologist at the National University of Singapore, has led archaeological excavations and found a large number of Coins of the Tang and Song Dynasties, most of which date back to the Northern Song Dynasty, and the coins are minted with clearly visible handwriting such as YuanFeng Tongbao (1078-1086), Xuanhe Tongbao (1119-1126), Jianyan Tongbao (1127-1131) and a coin dating back to the time of Emperor Gaozong of the Southern Song Dynasty (1127-1130). (35) In 1989, five coins were unearthed from the ruins of the Old Parliament Building in Singapore, two of which date back to 990. Around the same time, a coin inscribed with the words "Shao Sheng" was also found in Queen's Square, near the mouth of Singapore. (36) In 1994, 124 Chinese copper coins were excavated from the site of the New Parliament Building, including 2 from the Tang Dynasty, 90 from the Northern Song Dynasty, 6 from the Southern Song Dynasty, and other copper coins that could not be identified from the dynasty. (37) In February 2004, the Misik team excavated six copper coins from St. Andrew's Cathedral, five of which were from China, one dating from 1001-1006, one from 1032-1033, the other three with unrecognizable text, and one from Sri Lanka dating back to the late 13th century. (38)
The excavation of these Tang and Song bronze coins confirms the record of trade between ancient Singapore and China during the death of Srivijaya in ancient historical books. The large amount of Song money shows that the overseas trade of the Song Dynasty was more prosperous than that of the Tang Dynasty, and eastern and western merchants could trade locally. This is related to the Song Dynasty's policy of maritime trade, which allowed Private Chinese Merchant Ships to trade at sea. According to Pearson, "In the 10th century, Chinese civilian ships laden with spices and silk began to sail westward, and while they were moored in ports near the Strait of Malacca, they met Arab and Indian merchants and exchanged goods with each other. However, due to the long voyage and the inconsistency of the monsoon time prevailing in the East and West, the arrival time of Chinese and Indian and Arab ships was not always the same, so some Eastern and Western merchants settled in groups in moored settlements and built stacks to store goods, so that no matter when The East and West ships entered the port, Chinese, Indian and Arab merchants could buy goods here. (39) Ancient Singapore was a settlement for traders from east and west near the Strait of Malacca. According to the "History of the Song Dynasty", "Qianben Chinese treasure goods are now shared with Siyi. "Song money once became the common currency in the world, a large number of outflows, the Southern Song Dynasty limited to silk, porcelain and other exchange of foreign goods. (40) A large amount of Song money unearthed in Singapore is mostly from the Northern Song Dynasty, which also confirms this historical fact. Therefore, it can be said that the development of the Maritime Silk Road and the opening up of non-governmental trade directly laid the prosperity of ancient Singapore's trade.
(4) Ancient Singapore in the time of Srivijaya: beginning to take shape as a port
In the 1950s, economic historian Karl Polanyi first attempted to promote the term "trading port" to refer to a specific type of town settlement. (41) Polani believes that before the establishment of international markets, the trading port was a common overseas trade venue. (42) In 1961, the economic historian Anthony Leeds formally proposed the concept and basic characteristics of a "trading port." Leeds sees the trade port as a well-defined complex of institutions and people, a geopolitical entity in which trade is a state affair and a political function, not an economic one. It has the following 5 characteristics: 1. an autonomous, specialized town, city or small trade center; 2. it is usually a transshipment point between different ecological regions; 3. it is usually a specific neutral buffer zone; 4. the trading port itself does not involve indigenous groups in the actual exchange of goods, but the port officials manage the trade, but they are not the parties to the trade; 5. the trading port has foreign merchants living for a long time, and the foreign merchants are restricted to a specific area of residence. (43) The trade port defined by Polani and Leeds is clearly a mature form of trading port before the rise of world capitalism.
Throughout the ancient history of Southeast Asian countries before colonialism, the early political system was almost always based on town settlements and overseas trade sites formed by trade between the East and the West, such as the death of the ancient trading kingdom of Srivijaya. Its strong overseas policy fully embodies Leeds's definition of "trade is a state affair", and its tributary trade with China also shows the "political function of trade", but the more important trade function is reflected in the economic function of taxing trade between East and West. Ancient Singapore in this period, as a vassal state of Srivijaya's death, although it is impossible to verify its political system, it is inferred that through the "Lingya gate" in the "Zhufan Zhi" enjoying "one-third" trade autonomy, ancient Singapore was an autonomous small trade center, and it was also a transshipment point between China, India and Arabia in different ecological regions. Moreover, according to Pearson's description, in order to facilitate trade, some Eastern and Western merchants built stacks in ancient Singapore to store goods and lived in groups. It can be seen that ancient Singapore fully conforms to the basic characteristics of Articles 1, 2 and 5 of the "Trade Port" proposed by Leeds. It can be said that ancient Singapore during Srivijaya's death has begun to take shape as an early trading port.
With the demise of Srivijaya, the waters of the Strait of Malacca were freed from its control and became a "vacuum zone" without ownership. The original ports in the Strait of Malacca began to trade autonomously with ships passing through the Strait of Malacca, while a new group of port settlements rose up to provide specific products to traders in transit in order to benefit from Asian trade between the Indian and South China Seas. (44) Against this backdrop, ancient Singapore, located off the strait of Malacca and free from Srivijaya's control, quickly became a thriving international port and regional commercial center.
Rise as a regional commercial center: the prosperity of early ports
According to historical records, during the heyday of Srivijaya before the 13th century and the Kingdom of Malacca after the 15th century, ancient Singapore was its vassal state. According to the History of Ming and Raffles' version of the Malay Chronicle, W. Linehan examines the kingdom of Singapura (the kingdom of Singapore) was established in 1299, destroyed by Majapa in 1391, and established in Malacca in 1393. (45) The kingdom of Xinha Tiluo existed for the same time as the Yuan Dynasty in China. The rulers of the Yuan Dynasty inherited the old System of the Song Dynasty, actively encouraged overseas trade, and successively set up municipal shipping departments in seven places, including Quanzhou, Guangzhou, and Hangzhou. According to the "History of the Yuan", "By the twenty-first year of the Yuan Dynasty (1284), the capital of the city was transferred to Hangzhou and Quan'er prefectures. The official gives the ship to the ben, and selects people to enter the trade of goods, and the interest obtained by the official is divided into ten points, and the official takes seven of them, and the other person gets three. (46) Under such encouragement, a large number of merchants went overseas during the Yuan Dynasty to engage in trade activities. The only ancient text in the Yuan Dynasty (47) that records commerce in Southeast Asia, the Island Yi ZhiLuo, and the Malay Chronicle, complement Temasek's existence as a thriving international port and regional commercial hub. Archaeological discoveries in Singapore confirm this.
(i) The Malay Chronicle and the Island Chronicle confirm that Temasek is an international port with a thriving trade
The name "Temasek" in Malay literature is first mentioned in the Malay Chronicle. According to the Malay Chronicle, at the end of the 13th century, the princes of the kingdom of Srivijaya established the Kingdom of Singhti in Temasek, the Kingdom of Singhra. Tamasak is the ancient name of Singapore. (48) The Island Chronicles and ancient Southeast Asian texts such as the Chronicle of Vietnam (49) in 1330 and the Javanese Chronicles (50) in 1365 have records of "Temasek", which shows that the ancient name "Temasek" was famous in China and Southeast Asian countries in the 14th century.
According to the Malay Chronicle, during the reign of the Kingdom of Khyentse Đại Đồi Đại Đồi Đại Đồng Đồng Its port is extremely densely populated." (51) During the reign of the Kingdom of Shinha Đại (52) If the Kingdom of Singhyotora really existed, then ancient Singapore in the late 13th and 14th centuries was a densely populated, trade-rich international port nation known throughout the world. According to Pearson, not only Arab, Chinese, and Indian merchants traded and bartered goods during this period, but also merchants from ancient Singapore, "getting rich, they bought silk from China, spices from the Spice Islands, bird's nest from Siribes, gold sand from Malaya, and tin sand from Sumatra." They built good stacks to store these goods." (53) The Island Yizhiluo also confirms the prosperity of the Port Trade of Shan Ma Xi. The "Island YiZhiluo Dragon Tooth Gate" records: "The gate is a single horse Xifan two mountains, intersecting like a dragon's tooth, and there are waterways between them." ...... Real estate rough down real, dou tin. Trade goods, using red gold, green satin, flower cloth, urns, iron dins and the like. There is no beauty material in the mountain, and there is no foreign goods in tribute. The barter in Tongquan prefecture is also plagiarized. (54) The "Island Yi Zhiluo BanPao Tiao" records: "Boiling the sea for salt, brewing rice for wine, mingjiaxi." There are chiefs. The real estate is high-class crane top, medium descending, wood wool flower. Trade goods, with silk cloth, iron bars, earthen cloth, red gold, porcelain, iron ding. (55) Scholars generally agree that the "single horse tin" and "dragon tooth gate" in the text do refer to Singapore, and the pawn may be part of Singapore. C.A. Gibson-Hill shows that the Dragon's Tooth Gate refers to the western entrance to Port Keppel in Singapore. (56) John Miswick believed that Shan Ma Xi, Dragon Tooth Gate and Ban Guan all referred to Singapore, and Shan Ma Xi was a generic term for Singapore, and Ban Zi was now Fort Canning Hill. (57) During this period, Shan Ma Tin was known for producing crane tops, descending truths and cotton.
It is a fragrant wood that grows widely throughout the maritime regions of Southeast Asia, and in the 13th and 14th centuries the ports of the Southeast Asian land coast, the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and Borneo all provided the advent to Asian traders. The standout of Single Horse Tin stems from its quality. According to the "Interpretation of the Island Yizhi Sketch", there were as many as 14 ports of surrender during this period, mainly coarse and medium. (58) Chinese traders only recognize that five ports, including Shan Ma Xi, can export medium and high quality. (59) According to Wang Dayuan's classification, only the descending of the pawns in the ports of the Malay Peninsula is marked with "wood", indicating that it can be used as construction timber, and there is no other place in the Malay Peninsula. (60) And the crane top (hornbill shell), most likely a re-export product. Heding was introduced to China in the Yuan Dynasty by means of tributary trade, and was used to make carved crafts such as cups and belts. Its geographical distribution extends from the northern tip of the Malay Peninsula to Borneo. Although hornbills may also be found on Singapore Island, it is also possible that the high-quality hornbill shells exported by the banzai may also come to Johor, as Johor is rich in forest products and wildlife resources, such as the hornbills and the elephants in the YuanShi "Chinese envoys sent to dragon's tooth menso to tame elephants" (62). Kapok must have been a re-export product, as the practice of growing cotton as a cash crop in Singapore during the later colonial period failed. (63) It can be seen that products produced by single-horse tin, in addition to specific products obtained from the island, may also be re-exported products obtained from neighboring areas.
According to the types of goods exported from trade ports in Southeast Asia in the appendix to the Islands of Yizhiluo, the trade centres of the Malay Peninsula, with the exception of Temasek, are mainly concentrated in its northern region; the trading centres of Sumatra and Java are too far from southern Johor and the Riau Islands, or serve different trading circles. (64) Located at the mouth of the Johor River, near the Riau Islands, Temasek is the nearest port and commercial centre for the southern part of Johor and the Riau Islands into the wider Asian maritime trade. As a result, it is likely that Southern Johor and the Riau Islands will be the economic hinterland of Temasek, becoming "an integral part of Temasek's regional trade" by exchanging local and foreign goods to become "an integral part of Temasek's regional trade" (65). As a centre for asia's maritime trade directly in the southern johor and Riau Islands waters, Temasek is both a hub for local and foreign products and a regional commercial hub.
(ii) Archaeology in Singapore and Riau confirms that ancient Singapore was a regional commercial centre
The Fort Canning Archaeological Survey, initiated by the National Museum of Singapore in 1984 and led by John Miswick, opened up large-scale archaeological excavations in Singapore in the 20th century. The Singapore archaeological team conducted archaeological excavations at Fort Canning Hill, the Houses of Parliament, and near Queen's Square and St Andrew's Cathedral near the mouth of the Singapore River, unearthing a large number of ceramic fragments.
Fort Canning Mountain, also known as the Forbidden Mountain. A large number of Chinese porcelain from the first half of the 14th century was discovered in the 1984 Fort Canning Archaeological Survey. as well as pottery made in Singapore. (66) In 1984, 1985 and 1987, Singapore archaeological teams re-excavated Fort Canning Hill and unearthed a large number of 14th-century artifacts, including "fine porcelain" pottery (67), Chinese stoneware, and many pottery fragments engraved with Chinese characters, Chinese green porcelain, Chinese white porcelain, early blue and white porcelain, a large number of glass (including small unformed glass blocks, beads of perforatized glass, glass fragments and glass bracelets). According to the analysis, Chinese porcelain fragments can be traced back to the end of the Yuan Dynasty at the latest (about 1300-1367), of which the raised pisces pattern porcelain is typical of the Song and Yuan styles. (68)
The ruins of the Houses of Parliament, located on the banks of the Singapore River, are divided into the ruins of the Old Houses of Parliament and the Ruins of the New Houses of Parliament. In 1989, John Miswick led a team to excavate a large number of ceramic stone tools under the foundation of the Old Parliament Building, including 338 pieces of pottery, 758 pieces of stone tools including mercury pots, and 311 pieces of celadon porcelain. (69) From November 1994 to January 1995, the National Museum of Singapore excavated a large number of artifacts from the site of the New Parliament Building, including porcelain from the 13th century (late Song and early Yuan) and porcelain from the late 14th to early 15th centuries (early Ming Dynasty) and a copper coin of Ancient Ceylon (dating back to the reign of Bhuvanika Bahu I from 1273-1302) as well as a large amount of copper wire, 11 copper fish hooks, 33 iron pieces, 3 pieces of gold leaf, 799 grams of slag and 10 copper beads. John Miswick thought the Capitol site could be a commercial and metalworking site. (70)
Ruins of the Queen's Mansion, located at the mouth of the Left Bank (North Bank) River in Singapore. In 1998, the Asian Civilisations Museum and the Singapore Museum of History undertook the excavation of the site, and at least 40,000 artifacts were unearthed, including Chinese porcelain, a small amount of Vietnamese blue and white porcelain, 5 early glass fragments, coins (6 Chinese coins, 1 of which may be from Malacca or Johor), goldbelt fragments and other cultural relics from two different historical periods. According to the analysis of porcelain styles, there are both Chinese porcelain from the late 13th to the mid-15th century, as well as artworks from the Dutch East India Company and Chinese porcelain and coins from the second half of the 18th century. (71) In 2015, the National Heritage Board of Singapore and the Nalanda-Sriwijaya Centre of the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies carried out large-scale archaeological excavations in the area around the Queen's Mansion, unearthing a large number of 14th-century artifacts, including Longquan celadon used by the Chinese imperial government more than 700 years ago, small Buddha statues from the Yuan Dynasty, wooden planks, gold coins, blue and white porcelain and bronze coins. Lim Chun-cheung, a Singaporean archaeologist in charge of the project, deduced that the Queens Tower site was likely a market.
In 2003 John Miswick led the excavation of a fourth site, St. Andrew's Cathedral. The Singapore archaeological team excavated artifacts not found at other Singaporean sites, such as three complete stone tools from the 14th century period; a string of agate pearls, probably from India; and a 10-yuan coin from the Yuan dynasty. In 2004, John Misik's team conducted an archaeological excavation of St. Andrew's Cathedral, which unearthed nearly a ton of ceramic stone tool fragments, as well as a small amount of iron hooks, wire, slag, 2 pieces of bronze and a Sri Lankan copper coin dating back to the late 13th century. (72)
Among the cultural relics excavated above, ceramic stone tool fragments are the largest and most common, indicating that ancient Singapore was still an important trade point and transit station on the Maritime Silk Road during the Yuan Dynasty. In addition to singapore-made pottery, there are many imported products, the largest quantity of ceramics from the Chinese Yuan Dynasty, as well as fine porcelain pottery exported from Thailand, blue and white porcelain from Vietnam, copper coins from ancient Ceylon, and agate strings from India. It can be seen that Temasek's main trade targets during this period were China, but also traded with Southeast Asian countries and Indian Ocean countries. The excavation of copper wire, copper fish hook, slag, slag, etc. in archaeological relics shows that Temasek has a certain ability to process finished products, such as making copper wire into copper fish hooks, and then exporting to other countries. As a result, Temasek is not only a "collection centre" and "export gateway" for foreign products, but also a "redistribution" point for local products, acting as a distribution port.
The Turning Point of the Maritime Silk Road: The Obliteration of Early Ports
Ancient Singapore, located at the southern tip of the Strait of Malacca in the second half of the 14th century, was invaded (and probably at the same time) by the newly rising Javanese Magnopache Empire (Majapahit) in the south and the Sukhothai Dynasty (Siam) in the north due to its important geographical location and prosperous port trade. (73) Many texts of this period of history are vague and contradictory. According to the Malay Chronicle, the Khyentha Tira Kingdom V died, and its last monarch, Iskandarsha, was also the founding monarch of the Kingdom of Malacca, Parameswara. (74) According to the Chronicle written for his father by the son of the Portuguese Afonso de Albuquerque (75) and the Oriental Chronicle of tortoise, the chieftain of Palembang, Majapahi, rebelled against Majapahit, fled to Temasek in vain, but killed his host, the Singapore chieftain, who occupied and dominated the Strait of Singapore and its territory for 5 years, before being attacked by the rulers of Pattani or Siam. Established the Malacca Sultanate. (76) After the establishment of the Kingdom of Malacca, the commercial center of the straits of Malacca was transferred to Malacca, and the records of ancient Singapore as a port are almost invisible. Records of ancient Singapore in ancient Chinese texts go back to the 7th century AD as a signpost or direction during a voyage. The maps drawn by the portuguese colonists in the later period only marked the location of Singapore as "Shabandal", and the other language is unknown. Few artifacts from the 14th century have been found in Singapore's archaeological remains. (77) The main reasons for its decline are as follows:
First, the rise of the Malacca Dynasty replaced Temasek's port status. According to the Portuguese writer Joao de Barros, "Bailimisula forced ships that had previously sailed in the strait between Malacca and Sumatra not to travel to Singapore. At the same time, ships from the East who, according to the old custom, used to go to Singapore to exchange Western goods will not be allowed to go to Singapore in the future. As a result, Singapore became a place where merchants became extinct. They all moved to live in Malacca. (78) As a result, Temasek's port status declined rapidly and was replaced by Malacca, the capital of the Kingdom of Malacca.
Second, the Ottoman Empire's war of expansion over Europe severely affected Trade between East and West. The 14th century was a hundred years after the Expansion of the Ottoman Empire into Europe, and all european countries were drawn into this protracted war, which severely hindered communication between East and West and often interrupted trade. This weakened Western demand for Chinese silk, porcelain, and Southeast Asian goods to some extent; combined with the Ottoman Empire's high taxes on merchants of the past, global maritime trade declined. The Maritime Silk Road was affected by the entire world environment, overseas trade was much worse than before, and the East-West trade transiting through ancient Singapore gradually declined.
Third, more importantly, the Ming Dynasty's "sea ban" policy directly affected Temasek's port status. After the establishment of the Ming Dynasty in 1368, the Wukou invaded, and the Ming Dynasty implemented a "sea ban" policy for the sake of national security. The so-called "sea ban", that is, the abolition of private maritime trade, the establishment and implementation of an official tributary trade system, the private trade was determined to be illegal, and the municipal shipping department was abolished. The tributary trade was based on the principle of "thin and thick", and exquisite ceramics were exchanged for foreign goods as a reward. This tributary trade reached its peak during Zheng He's series of activities in the Western Ocean during the Yongle period of the Ming Dynasty. (79) Under the tributary trading system, the Chinese authorities granted a powerful trading kingdom the privilege of handling all trade in the region, and this trading kingdom became a distribution center for all the products of the region, which were then shipped to China's ports in the name of tribute from the vassal states. In this case, all international traders flocked to the above-mentioned distribution centers to purchase products, and smaller trading ports became less and less accessible and unprofitable. (80) In the Malay Peninsula after the end of the 14th century and the 15th century, the Malacca Dynasty (which became a vassal state of the Ming Dynasty of China in 1405) was a trading kingdom granted trade privileges, and the capital City of Malacca assumed the role of a distribution center. During Zheng He's voyage to the West, the Ming Dynasty used it as a base to establish an "official field" (logistics warehouse). As a result, Singapore's role as a port was replaced by Somalacca and gradually faded out of the historical arena.
In summary, the formation and prosperity of Singapore's early ports is almost consistent with the time node of the development and prosperity of the Maritime Silk Road. From the opening of the Maritime Silk Road by Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty to the envoys sent by Sun Quan of Eastern Wu to Funan, it was the early stage of the development of the Maritime Silk Road, and the coastal area of Singapore was a necessary place in its voyage, and "Pizong" and "Puluo China" may have been only the early settlements of the "Hairen". It was not until the death of Srivijaya and Temasek, that is, the Tang, Song and Yuan dynasties, that China, as one of the richest and most powerful countries in the world, reached its peak on the Maritime Silk Road, and the maritime trade between the East and the West showed unprecedented prosperity. Ancient Singapore, which guards the throat of the Strait of Malacca, was the only way for merchants from the East and west to enter the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean, and naturally brought together merchants from China, Arabia and India to stop and feed and trade locally, and then developed into a distribution port and regional commercial center for trade prosperity. Thus, the formation and prosperity of Singapore's early ports benefited from the development of the Maritime Silk Road. During this period, in addition to the developed tributary trade, there was also a prosperous folk trade. However, the changes in the Maritime Silk Road during the Ming Dynasty and the policy of sea prohibition and tributary trade implemented by the rulers directly led to the decline of the ancient Singapore port. The rise and fall of Singapore's early ports was inextricably linked to the Maritime Silk Roads. Looking back at the past and basing itself on the future, modern Singapore, as an important strategic fulcrum of the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road Economic Belt, will inevitably be rejuvenated with new vitality.
exegesis:
(1) Research on the early history of Singapore, mainly found in the research writings of singaporean scholars, first began in 1935, early scholars including Roland St. John Braddell, Hsü Yün-Ts'iao and Paul Wheatley, who placed the early history of Singapore in the history of Malaya for research, examining the ancient name of Singapore in ancient texts from the East and the West. They agreed that Long (Ling) Yamen and Tam (Shan) Ma Xi did refer to Singapore. See St. Roland St John Braddell, A Study of Ancient Times in the Malay Peninsula and the Straits of Malacca and Notes on Ancient Times in Malaya, Kuala Lumpur: the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society,1980.Roland St.John Braddell,"Notes on Ancient Times in Malay," Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society,Vol.20,no.1(1947),pp.161-186; Vol.20,no.2(1947),pp.1-19; Vol.22,no.1(1949),pp.1-24; Vol.23,no.1(1950),pp.1-35; Vol.24,no.1(1951),pp.1-27.Hsü Yün-Ts'iao,"Singapore in the Remote Past," Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society,Vol.45,no.1(221),January,1972,pp.1-9.Paul Wheatley,"Belated Comments on Sir Roland Braddell's Study of Ancient Times in the Malay Peninsula," Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society,Vol.28,no.1(169),March,1955, pp.78-98.Paul Wheatley,The Golden Khersonese,Studies in the Historical Geography of the Malay Peninsula before AD 1500,Kuala Lumpur:University of Malaya Press,1961.) In 1969, Brian E. Colless began to study the early history of Singapore as an independent individual, proposing that Sabara or Sabana in Ptolemy's Geography of the 2nd century AD was the pawn in the 14th-century navigator Wang Dayuan's "Island YiZhiluo", that is, Fort Canning Mountain. And Singapore may have been an important commercial and trade center as early as the 2nd century AD. See Brian E. Colless, "The Ancient History of Singapore," Journal of Southeast Asian History, Vol.10, no.1, March, 1969, pp.1-11 A group of early Singaporean historical academic rookies, represented by Chong Guan) and Derek Heng Thiam Soon, rose to prominence. Based on the archaeological findings of Singapore and the study of ancient texts and maps of the East and the West, they believe that Singapore in the late 13th and 14th centuries was already an international port with prosperous trade. See John N. Miksic, Cheryl-Ann Low Mei Gek, Early Singapore 1300s-1819: evidence in maps, text and artefacts, Singapore: Singapore History Museum, 2004.John N. Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea,1300-1800,Singapore:National University of Singapore Press,2013.Peter Borschberg,Benjamin J.Q.Khoo,"Singapore as a Port City,c1290-1819; Evidence,Frameworks and Challenges," Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatw Society,Vol.91,Part 1,no.314,June 2018,pp.1-27.Kwa Chong Guan,Derek Heng,Tan Tai Yong,Singapore: a 700-year history:from early emporium to world city,Singapore:National Archives of Singapore,2009.Kwa Chong Guan,Derek Heng,Peter Borschberg,Tan Tai Yong,Seven Hundred Years:a history of Singapore,Singapore:National Library Board,2019.Derek Heng Thiam Soon,"Temasik as an International and Regional Trading Port in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries:A Reconstruction Based on Recent Archaeological Data," Journal of the Malaysian Branch of Royal Asiatic Society,Vol.72,no.1(276),1999,pp.113-124.
(2) Geographically, Southeast Asia is composed of peninsulas and archipelagos, including the Indochina Peninsula and the Malay Peninsula; the archipelagic region includes more than 20,000 islands such as Sumatra, Kalimantan, Java, and the Philippine Archipelago.
(3) See Wenjiang, ed., Maritime Traffic between Ancient China and Asia and Africa, Sichuan Academy of Social Sciences Press, 1989, p. 27.
(4) "Hanshu And Geography", Zhonghua Bookstore, 1962 punctuation, p. 1671.
(5) The Japanese scholar Toyohachi Fujita believes that Pizong is a transliteration of Pisang, which means Banana Island, that is, Pisang Island between Singapore and Sumatra. See Toyohachi Fujita: Examination of Ancient Traffic in the South China Sea, translated by He Jianmin, Commercial Press, 1936, p. 87. French scholar Gabriel Ferrand believes that whether Pizon refers to Pulaw Pisan in southern Malacca or Pulaw Pisan on the southeast coast of the Malay Peninsula, Han Dynasty envoys must travel to India via Singapore and the Strait of Malacca, and must stop on one of the islands. Therefore, Pizon is collectively called a landmark. See Fei Lang: "Ancient Navigation Examination of Kunlun and the South China Sea", translated by Feng Chengjun, Zhonghua Bookstore, 2002 edition, p. 61. Xu Yunqiao believes that the "Pizong" here and the "Bisong" in the Tang Dynasty Du You's "General Classic" and the "Bi Song" in the "History of Ming" may not only refer to an island, but are the landmarks used by ancient navigators to refer to the southern tip of the nearby peninsula, probably referring to the area around the current Johor and Singapore Islands. See Xu Yunqiao: A History of Nanyang (Part I), World Book Company, 1961 edition, p. 46. Qiu Xinmin believes that Pizong may be said to be the earliest name of Singapore, referring to the Singapore Strait, and the main island of Singapore. Qiu Xinmin, Singapore on the Maritime Silk Road, Singapore Shengyou Books, 1951 edition, p. 71.
(6) Yu Dingbang, Huang Zhongyan, et al.: Compilation of Information on Singapore and Malaysia in Ancient Chinese Books, Zhonghua Bookstore, 2002 Edition, pp. 33-34.
(7) "The island at the end of the peninsula" is corroborated by the geographical chronicle of the ancient Greek geographer Ptolemy in the 2nd century AD: "There is a place name Sabana or Sabara at the southern end of the Golden Peninsula (Malay Peninsula) (scholars believe that Singapore)".
(8) Cheng Man Fai, "Singapore: The Equatorial Little Red Dot", Singapore Blue Dot Books Private Company, 2009 edition, p. 50.
(9) Malcolm H. Merfett, John M. N. Miksic, Brian M. P. Farrell and Zhang Mingshun, The Historical Facades of Singapore: 1275-1971, translated by Chen Xincai and Zhang Qingjiang, Asia Book Publishing House, 2011, p. 9.
⑩John N.Miksic,Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea 1300-1800,p.106.
(11) Kwa Chong Guan,Derek Heng,Tan Tai Youg,Singapore:a 700-Year History,from Emporium to World City,Singapore:Notivnd Achines of Singapore,2009,p.23.
(12) Liang Zhiming et al., eds., Ancient History of Southeast Asia, Peking University Press, 2013, pp. 203-205.
(13) Wenjiang, ed., Maritime Traffic between Ancient China and Asia and Africa, p. 148.
(14) Malcolm H. Merfett, John M. N. Miksic, Blythe M. P. Farrell and Zhang Mingshun, The Historical Facades of Singapore: 1275-1971, p. 20.
(15) Zhou Zhifei, Yang Wuquan's Annotations on the Lingwai Dai Answers, vol. 20, "Foreign Gate on the Three Buddhas and The Kingdom of Qi", Zhonghua Bookstore, 2006 edition, p. 86.
(16) Zhao Rushi, Yang Bowen's Proofreading of the Interpretation of zhufanzhi, scroll "Three Buddhas and The Kingdom of Qi", Zhonghua Bookstore, 2000 edition, p. 38.
(17) Malcolm H. Merfett, John M. N. Miksic, Brian M. P. Farrell and Zhang Mingshun, The Historical Facades of Singapore: 1275-1971, p. 20.
(18) Fei Lang: Notes on the Oriental Literature of the Arab persian Turks, translated by Geng Sheng and MuGenlai, Zhonghua Bookstore, 1989 edition, pp. 660, 324.
(19) Wenjiang, editor-in-chief, Maritime Traffic between Ancient China and Asia and Africa, p. 97.
(20) Yu Dingbang, Huang Chongyan, et al., Compilation of Information on Singapore and Malaysia in Ancient Chinese Texts, p. 16.
(21) Nanyang Shang Bao: "One Hundred and Fifty Years of Singapore", Nanyang Shang Bao, 1969 edition, p. 11.
(22) Cheng Man Fai, Singapore: The Little Red Dot at the Equator, p. 98.
(23) Cheng Wenhui, "Singapore Before the Opening of the Port", Singapore Simpang Cultural Enterprise Company, 1974 edition, p. 8.
(24) See Feng Chengjun, History of Transportation in Nanyang, China, Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, 2005, p. 32. Qiu Xinmin, Singapore on the Maritime Silk Road, Singapore Shengyou Books, 1991 edition, p. 92.
(25) Suleiman: "Records of China and India", translated by Mu Genlai, Wen Jiang, and Huang Kuohan, Zhonghua Bookstore, 1983 edition, p. 35.
(26) Monsoons prevail in the Malay Peninsula and the East Indies. From October to March, the land in eastern Asia is cold, and the wind blows from land to the equator, which is the northeast monsoon; from May to August, the land in eastern Asia becomes warm due to the sun's exposure, and the wind blows from the equator to the land, which is the southwest monsoon.
(27) Ha Fer Pearson: A History of Singapore, translated by the Translation Team of The History of Singapore, Fujian People's Publishing House, 1972, pp. 6-7.
(28) HaPhre Pearson: A History of Singapore, p. 7.
(29) New Book of Tang, vol. 222, "Southern Man Transmission", Zhonghua Bookstore, 1975 Punctuation, p. 6306.
(30) According to the "Song Shi, Food And Goods Chronicle, And Mutual Market Shipping Law", in the fourth year of Kaibao (971), the city was placed in Guangzhou. In the following year, Mingzhou (present-day Ningbo) and Hangzhou also set up municipal shipping divisions. Wen Jiang, ed., Maritime Traffic in Ancient China and Asia and Africa, p. 130.
(31) Zhao Rushi, Yang Bowen Proofreading interpretation of zhufanzhi school interpretation, pp. 34-35.
(32) Zhao Rushi, Yang Bowen Proofreading interpretation of Zhu Fanzhi Interpretation, p. 38.
(33) Zhao Rushi, Yang Bowen Proofreading interpretation of zhufanzhi school interpretation, pp. 35-36.
(34) LuItsicong, "Song Qian: Singapore's Currency in Circulation in the Era of the Maritime Silk Road," Lianhe Zaobao, December 14, 2017. Website http://www.zaobao.com/news/fukan/multiplex/story20171214-818713, accessed: January 17, 2019.
(35) John N.Miksic and Cheryl-Ann Low Mei Gek eds.,Early Singapore 1300-1819:Evidence in Maps,Text and Artefacts,Singapore:National University of Singapore Press,2013,pp.49-50.John N.Miksic,Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea1300-1800,p.228.
(36) John N.Miksic,Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea1300-1800,p.240.
(37) John N.Miksic and Cheryl-Ann Low Mei Gek eds.,Early Singapore 1300-1819:Evidence in Maps,Text and Artefacts,p.50.
(38) John N.Miksic,Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea 1300-1800,p.263.
(39) HaPhre Pearson: A History of Singapore, pp. 8-9.
(40) Wenjiang, ed., Maritime Traffic in Ancient China and Asia and Africa, p. 164.
(41) John N.Miksic and Cheryl-Ann Low Mei Gek eds.,Early Singapore 1300-1819:Evidence in Maps,Text and Artefacts,p.42,
(42) Karl Polanyi,"Ports of Trade in Early Societies," The Journal of Economic History,Vol.23,no.1(March 1963),p.31.
(43) Anthony Leeds,"The Port-of-Trade in Pre-European India as an Ecological and Evolutionary Type," in V.E.Garfield ed.,Symposium:Patterns of Land Utilization and Other Papers,Seattle:American Ethnological Society,1961,pp.27-28.
(44) Kwa Chong Guan,Derek Heng,Tan Tai Yong,Singapore:a 700-Year History,from Early Emporium to World City,Singapore:National Archives of Singapore,2009,pp.23-24.
(45) W.Linehan,"The Kings of 14th Century Singapore," Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society,Vol.20,no.2(December 1947),p.120.
(46) "History of the Yuan", vol. 94, "Food Commodity Chronicle II", Zhonghua Bookstore, 2000 punctuation, p. 1592.
(47) The ancient texts of Singapore mentioned in the ancient texts of the Yuan Dynasty history include the Marco Polo Chronicle and the YuanShi, the Marco Polo Chronicle and the "Ma Li Yu'er" in the Yuan Shi Siamese Biography, which according to Xu Yunqiao is the ancient name of Singapore. Hui pointed out that in the 13th century, Singapore's name was Ma (Ma) Liyu'er, and the city name was Temasek. Ma (Ma) Liyu'er was the later Manchuga Dynasty (Malacca Dynasty). See Nanyang Shang Bao: One Hundred and Fifty Years of Singapore, Nanyang Shang Bao, Singapore, 1969 edition, p. 11.
(48) The Malay Chronicles (Revised Edition), Singapore Youth Books, 2004, pp. 86-88.
(49) Derek Heng Thiam Soon,"Temasik as an International and Regional Trading Port in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Century:a Reconstruction Based in Recent Archaeological Data," Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society,Vol.72,no.1(1999),p.114.
(50) Prabanza: "Javanese History Song", edited by Xu Mingyue and Liu Zhiqiang, Commercial Press, 2016 edition, p. 50.
(51) Xu Yunqiao's Translation of the Malay Chronicle (Revised Edition), p. 88.
(52) Xu Yunqiao's Translation of the Malay Chronicle (Revised Edition), pp. 90-91.
(53) HaPhre Pearson: A History of Singapore, pp. 21-22.
(54) Wang Dayuan and Su Jikuan's Interpretation of the Interpretation of the Island Chronicle, pp. 213-214.
(55) Wang Dayuan, Su Jikuo's Interpretation of the Interpretation of The Island Yizhi, p. 196. Mu Mianhua, Su Jiyu interpreted as "Kapok".
(56) C.A.Gibson-Hill,Singapore Old Strait and New Harbour,1300-1870,Singapore:Memoirs of the Raffles Museum,1956,p.36.
(57) John N.Miksic and Cheryl-Ann Low Mei Gek eds.,Early Singapore 1300 s-1819,Evidence in Maps,Text and Artifacts,p.44.
(58) Wang Dayuan, Su Jikuan's Interpretation of the Interpretation of The Island Yizhi, pp. 430-431.
(59) Kwa Chong Guan,Derek Heng,Tan Tai Yong,Singapore:a 700-Year History,from Early Emporium to World City,p.28.
(60) Derek Heng Thiam Soon,"Temasik as an International and Regional Trading Port in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Century:a Reconstruction Based in Recent Archaeological Data," Journal of Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society,Vol.72,no.1(1999),p.117.
(61) Derek Heng Thiam Soon,"Temasik as an International and Regional Trading Port in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Century:a Reconstruction Based in Recent Archaeological Data," Journal of Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society,Vol.72,no.1(1999),p.119.
(62) Yu Dingbang, Huang Chongyan, et al., Compilation of Information on Singapore and Malaysia in Ancient Chinese Texts, p. 38.
(63) Derek Heng Thiam Soon,"Temasik as an International and Regional Trading Port in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Century:a Reconstruction Based in Recent Archaeological Data," Journal of Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asitic Society,Vol.72,no.1(1999),p.118.
(64) According to Kenneth R. Hall, there were three indigenous trading circles in Southeast Asia in the 11th century, namely Sumatra, the southern Malay Peninsula and Java. See Kenneth R. Hall, Maritime Trade and State Development in Early Southeast Asia, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1985, p.24.
(65) Kwa Chong Guan,Derek Heng,Tan Tai Yong,Singapore:a 700-Year History,from Early Emporium to World City,pp.30-31.
(66) John N.Miksic,Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea 1300-1800,p.229.
(67) Fine porcelain pottery, made of relatively fine carbon-free clay, may be used for sacrifice. The Department of Physics of the National University of Singapore conducted a study of these sticky surfaces using energy-dispersed X-ray fluorescence technology, and the results showed that the artifacts may have been imported to Singapore from southern Thailand.
(68) John N.Miksic and Cheryl-Ann Low Mei Gek eds.,Early Singapore 1300-1819:Evidence in Maps,Text and Artefacts,pp.49-50.
(69) John N.Miksic,Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea 1300-1800,p.240.
(70) John N.Miksic and Cheryl-Ann Low Mei Gek eds.,Early Singapore 1300-1819:Evidence in Maps,Text and Artefacts,p.50.
(71) John N.Miksic and Cheryl-Ann Low Mei Gek eds.,Early Singapore 1300-1819:Evidence in Maps,Text and Artefacts,p.51.
(72) John N.Miksic,Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea 1300-1800,p.263.
(73) Derek Heng,Syed Muhd Khairudin Aljunied,Singapore in Global History,Amsterdam:Amsterdam University Press,2011,p.43.
(74) Xu Yunqiao's translation of the Malay Chronicle (Revised Edition), "Appendix", p. 118.
(75) The son of Afonso de Albuquerque, the conqueror of Malacca, did not travel to the East, but the Comentario do Grande Afonso de Albuquerque (1576 edition) was based on material of the time and can still be regarded as a relatively primitive first-hand account.
(76) Domo Pi Martyr, Oriental Chronicles: From the Red Sea to China, translated by He Gaoji, Chinese University Press, 2012, p. 222.
(77) Dr Dai Rouxing, who participated in the excavation of the Queens Tower site in 2015, said that there were fewer Ming Dynasty porcelain unearthed, which may be that Singapore's ancient trade activities fell silent after the establishment of the Malacca Dynasty. See Dai Rouxing, "Maritime Hegemony – Shan Ma Xi", Source, No. 4, 2016.
(78) David E.Sopher,The Sea Nomads:A Study Based On The literature Of The Maritime Boat People Of Southeast Asia,Singapore:National Museum,1977,p.317.
(79) Wei Jun, "The Trade of Marine Ceramics in Eastern Asia in the 13th-14th Centuries", Journal of Literature and Polymath, No. 2, 2018.
(80) Derek Heng Thiam Soon,"Temasik as an International and Regional Trading Port in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Century:a Reconstruction Based in Recent Archaeological Data," p.115.
(Project Result: This paper is the phased result of the Ministry of Education's Philosophy and Social Science Research Major Research Project "Research on the Marine Development Strategy of the World's Maritime Powers" (Project No.: 16JZD029))
Source: Shi Lin, No. 4, 2020