The original article is published in Philosophical Dynamics, No. 6, 2021.
| executive summary |
Contemporary academic circles have distinguished between "conservative" and "new" in the study of Huang Zongxi's thought, which has led to Huang Zongxi's appearance in the history of Chinese thought like "one person playing two roles". In fact, Huang Zongxi gained the impetus and resources for ideological innovation within the middle and late Ming Dynasty, and his ideas represented the path of psychology in which philosophy turned during the Ming and Qing dynasties. The problem is that people are relatively unfamiliar with this turn, which is the root cause of many divisions in the study of Huang Zongxi's thought in modern times. By comparing Wang Yangming and Huang Zongxi's different conceptions of the rule of three generations, clarifying Huang Zongxi's solution to the metaphysical and political and religious dilemmas since the late Ming Dynasty is an important entry point for re-evaluating the relationship between psychology and the ideological transformation in the Ming and Qing dynasties.
Keywords: Science; Rule of Three Generations; Ming and Qing Dynasty Ideological Transformation
At the time of the Ming and Qing dynasties, the philosopher Huang Zongxi (1610-1695, nicknamed Lizhou) had a large scale of thought, and he made important theoretical contributions in the fields of the study of the mind of science, the study of scripture and history, political philosophy, and astronomical almanac. Since the late Qing Dynasty and the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, academic research on Huang Zongxi has mainly focused on the study of his mentality and political thought. However, as the researchers have concluded, the research has generally taken a separate picture, that is, Huang's theory and political thought are regarded as two independent pieces of isolated thought, making it appear in the history of Chinese thought like "one person playing two corners".1 Another research situation is that the academic community makes a clear distinction between Huang Zongxi's theory and the study of classics and history, and engages in the debate between "keeping the old" and "opening up the new". The views of Qian Mu and Yu Yingshi's masters and apprentices are the most representative. Qian Mu commented on Huang Zongxi's "not much reading, and there is no way to prove the change of Reason." If there is too much to seek, it is a vulgar science" (Quan Zuwang's "Mr. Lizhou Shinto Inscription"), when saying: The former language opened up a new trend in the era, and the latter language still belongs to the old tradition, which represents the two sides of Huang's scholarship2. Yu Yingshi further explained that Huang Zongxi was in the transitional stage of Confucianism from dignity to Taoism, so there were two sides of opening up the new and being conservative3. In short, the common denominator of the above two types of research is that the morality (mentality, dignity) and deeds (Taoism, sutra history, and politics) in Huang Zongxi's thought are positioned as "two sides" of separation, which are not interconnected. However, from huang Zongxi's repeated harsh criticism of the consequences of "benevolence and merit separating paths" and causing "the urgent difficulty of not being able to save the country" (Mencius Said Mencius meets Liang Huiwang), it can be seen that this positioning is precisely contrary to Huang Zongxi's own academic self-consciousness.
Wang Fansen noted that Huang Zongxi's famous political philosophy work "Ming Yi To Be Visited" often appears the words "teaching" and "yang", which is related to the design system of the three generations of rule in Huang's vision with "compassion and love for others" as the starting point. 4 "Compassion for others" and "teaching" and "nurturing" are the core of the righteousness of the study of the mind. This unity between mentality and political thought actually shows that the so-called "new" and "old" juxtaposition is not only not the expression of the "transitional" nature of Huang Zongxi's thought, but rather its most creative place. Huang Zongxi's thought is evaluated by modern people as the aspect of "opening up the new", and its theoretical characteristics are determined by the aspect that is regarded as "old-fashioned". vice versa. To understand how the two converge into a complete intellectual whole, a broader theoretical perspective is needed. In view of this, this paper will cut into Huang Zongxi's thought with the help of the three generations of governance issues in the perspective of science, in order to grasp the solution ideas proposed by him in response to the dilemma of the times. Specifically, this paper will reconstruct the internal logic of Huang Zongxi's thought by comparing Wang Yangming and Huang Zongxi's different ideas on the rule of three generations, and explore the so-called "old-fashioned" and "new- and new-minded" nature of Huang Zongxi's thought by clarifying the solutions proposed by Huang Zongxi to the metaphysical and political and religious dilemmas since the late Ming Dynasty.
<h1 class="pgc-h-arrow-right" data-track="17" > I. Metaphysical characteristics of Yangmingxin and its political and religious dilemmas</h1>
The author has written an article arguing that Song Ming Theory is not just a product of the competition between Confucianism and Buddhism, but mainly the product of Confucianism's long-standing political and religious ideal of returning to the "rule of three generations". The study of the mind has its own unique mechanism of action in achieving the political and religious ideal of "rule of three generations". 5 Further, this mechanism is related to Song Ming's theory of locating people and reinterpreting liturgy from the level of cosmic order, and is illustrated by the "business theory" of Science as an example. As we all know, "benevolence" in terms of "business" is the invention of theoreticians. Cheng Hao said: "The business of all things is the most impressive, and this yuan is also the good and the long, and the so-called benevolence is also." Man and heaven and earth are one and the same, and man is very small, Ho Ya?" ("Henan Cheng's Testament", vol. 11) "Business" is the lively vitality of all things in heaven and earth, and the universe of heaven and earth is a sentient world with "business" flowing around. Different things constitute a rich and colorful world, representing that all things in heaven and earth are connected by business and become one, that is, "man and heaven and earth are one and the same."
Thus, "business" is actually a metaphysical representation of the intrinsic connections that pervade the characters, rather than just a poetic experience of objecting. "Benevolence" is also the meaning of cosmology: the intrinsic relationship between people and people, people and heaven and earth, is the cornerstone of the order and harmony of the community of heaven and earth. The "business" referred to by "benevolence" is intrinsically related and can be discerned from the two levels of existence and mentality. In the sense of existence, intrinsic association refers to the association between individuals based on the mutual stimulation and mutual achievement of nature. This allows the individual to gain universal and public meaning by entering the order of the community of heaven and earth, from the finite to the infinite. In the sense of the mind, the way in which the finite individual attains universality manifests the broader order from which life comes from, indicates the higher connotation of human life, and makes the transformation and cultivation of life possible. It is precisely based on the establishment of the metaphysics of "business" that the order and harmony of the community of heaven and earth are placed on the basis of human nature, opening up a new practical vision of Confucianism: liturgical music is the development of the public connotation in human nature; and the cultivation of life has also become the hub and channel for laying a harmonious and orderly community of heaven and earth.
In short, Song Mingxue reinterprets Lile in the form of the study of mental nature, and its meaning mechanism is manifested in: positioning people from the cosmic level, directly facing the cosmic order of each individual in the civilian society, settling life at the level of cosmic order, and rebuilding a beautiful public society. That is to say, the study of mental nature is also a new principle of social organization, a new principle that fully adapts to the socio-political conditions of the era of popularization. Its core meaning is based on the intrinsic connection of everything in the cosmological sense, which is called the metaphysics of "business theory". The characteristic of this interpretive mechanism is that the metaphysics and socio-political construction are integrated, and the cultivation of individual life becomes the source of motivation for activating the liturgical system and transforming the world; at the same time, the tension between metaphysical goals and socio-political construction arises. Wang Yangming's psychology and his design of ideal politics fully demonstrate the characteristics of this interpretation mechanism and its inherent tension. Wang Yangming's "Treatise on the Origin of The Pulling Of The Origin" states:
The heart of a saint is one with heaven and earth and all things as one, and he regards all the people under the heavens as one, no one outside, near or far, and whoever has flesh and blood is the relative of his brother and son, and he does not want to be safe and cultivate him, so as to fulfill his idea of the unity of all things. The hearts of the people under the heavens are not different from those of the saints, especially in the selfishness of the self, separated from the cover of material desires, the great is the small, the common is plugged, the people have their own hearts, and there are those who regard their fathers and sons and brothers as enemies. The saints have worries by pushing the benevolence of the unity of heaven and earth, in order to teach the world, so that all of them have the same self-denial, to remove their concealment, to restore the sameness of their minds and bodies. ...... In the three generations of Tang Yu, the teachers only used this as a teaching, and the scholars only used this as a learning. (The Book of The Book of The Transmission of The Book of Gu Dongqiao)
Yang Ming's passage revolves around the theory of Oneness, the core text of which is "Kundi's Naked Son's Relatives", which refers to a pure emotion that human beings have without any selfish desires. "The unity of mind and body" and "the teaching and learning of three generations" show that this pure emotion is the most real existence in human life and the cornerstone of the beautiful public order of human society. Through the comparison with Zhu Zixue, its ideological significance can be further highlighted. Qian Mu pointed out that both the "Theory of the Origin of the Baben Sai" and Zhu Zi's "Order of the University Chapters and Sentences" emphasize the inherent nature of each person through education and cultivation to achieve the ideal "rule of three generations" society, and the two texts are no different in the "Outline Section".6 The Confucian "rule of three generations" is not a factual description of the state of politics and religion in the historical period of the "three generations", but a value sustenance for the organizational principles of an ideal society. Both texts belong to Song Mingli's thinking on the "rule of three generations", and both are interpretations of the social principles of the metaphysics of "business theory", and there is indeed no difference in this sense. But the difference between the two is also very obvious. For example, Zhu Zi emphasized that the "inherent nature of sexuality" is the objective and public nature of benevolence, righteousness, and wisdom, and this "sex" has already stipulated that people's "duties should be" ("Four Books and Chapters and Sentences Notes: University Chapter and Sentence Order"). In essence, Zhu Zixue emphasizes that the principle of "public by all" integrates differentiated individuals, and its idea is to correct the mobilization of people's consciousness with objective public principles as the standard, and ultimately achieve the goal of eliminating the selfishness of human desires and building a beautiful community. Yang Ming's "inherent in sexuality" refers to the inner conscience of the individual, which is the "sameness of the mind and body" of "the spirit flows through, the ambition is reachable, and there is no distinction between the person and the self, and between the things and the self" ("Transmission of The Book of Teachings and Answers to Gu Dongqiao"). Obviously, Yang Ming is not defending the external objective criterion of inhibiting individuality here, but emphasizing the authentic state of individual emotions that is not bound by any external rules; the focus of his argument is to directly enter into the order of existence of All-That-Is with a lively individual emotional state. In other words, Yang Ming's intention is to find the generative structure of commonality in the truest emotions of each individual. This metaphysical approach and its framework can be discussed from two aspects.
First, it stems from Yang Ming's deepest response to the question of socio-political order. Yangming Xinxue flourished in the middle and late Ming dynasties of the 16th and 17th centuries. Japanese scholar Mitsuru Kishimoto pointed out that the 16th century was a period of great changes in the world, the social economy and the flow of people were rapidly active, the old system tended to collapse, the new system had not yet been formed, and major changes took place in the economic, political, religious, and ideological fields. To this day, she argues, the world is still confronted with the question that began in the 16th century—how to rebuild a new order of individuals and societies. This is known as the "post-16th century problem". 7 Specifically, at the beginning of the founding of the Ming Dynasty, Ming Taizu Zhu Yuanzhang took a series of measures to restore social order, such as the exclusive respect for Zhu Zixue and the establishment of the village Lijia system; the late Ming scholars praised its effect as "recreating the Hanxia and swinging the fishy wind for hundreds of years" (Guan Zhidao, "From the Earliest Wei Customs, The Pursuit of Guoxue Township Scholar Shu Originally Correctly Discussed the Yuanyuan to Fix the Academy's Side Discussion"). Since the Jiajing and Longqing years, the developed commodity economy has had a serious impact on the social order shaped in the early Ming Dynasty, with the decadence of ritual customs and the disintegration of the Lijia system, and people even use the description of "Lunjiao is gone, and the gang is often finished" (Fan Lian's "Records of Customs according to The Records of the Clouds"). In other words, in the middle and late Ming Dynasty, when Yangmingxue emerged, it was precisely such an era when the old order collapsed and a new order had not yet been formed; the people were thrown into a rapidly changing mobile society in the form of individuals8, and the sense of social crisis formed by this was completely integrated with the spontaneous enthusiasm of the people when Yangmingxue was popular in the world. The formation of this "individual" means that the previous way of establishing social ethics has become ineffective. Yangming conscience is based on repeated torture of this "individual". The fundamental question Yang Ming asked is: When all external appendages are stripped away, can the inseparable contents of an individual's life become the basis of social order? This is a fundamental solution to the difficult problems of politics and religion of the times.
Secondly, Yang Ming Xinxue is based on the metaphysics of "business theory", which expands the truest and purest emotions of human beings into the most related and functional root existence, that is, the most creative existence. For the above fundamental question, the affirmative answer yang ming found was "Kundi's naked son's relatives". Every individual comes into this world by blood and kinship and uses it as the first foothold in the world. This is the source of individual life, the "unpretentious request" that is still possessed after stripping away all external attachments. Yang Ming's definition of conscience is the heart of "sincere compassion" (Chuan Xi Lu • Answer Nie Wenwei), emphasizing its sincere and pure meaning. According to Mu Zongsan's explanation, it is benevolent in terms of compassion, and in terms of sincerity, respect is also included in 9 of them. On this basis, the conscience is expanded from relatives, brothers, kings, and even to all things in heaven and earth, and the order of a public society is established. It can be seen that Yang Ming is not limited to blood kinship, his original intention is to emphasize the true and pure emotional connection, and blood kinship is only one of the typical examples. This kind of true emotion, including blood kinship, is the channel for each individual to open up himself and establish a beautiful social order with others. This involves the unique connotation and function of "emotion" in Yangmingxue. The concepts of "emotion" and "reason" in Song Ming's science discuss the spiritual structure of man in his dealings with the world. The characteristic of Yang Mingxue is to point out that in grasping the structure of the world's existence, "emotion" is more natural and priority than "reason".10 The formulation of this view is not a simple revision of the connotation and extension of the concept of "emotion" in science, but a fundamental change based on philosophical positions and metaphysical structures.
"Emotion" is able to perceive changes in the world keenly because it is connected to all things in a direct way without the help of intermediaries. The onenessism of Yang Ming Mind is the oneness association based on emotions. Yang Ming refers to this connection as the "induction of a few", thus stating that heaven and earth, ghosts and gods, and all things are one with me, and that "my spirit" (conscience) is the master of the heavens and the earth and the ghosts and gods ("Transmission record"). "The number of inductions" is said in the sense of "emotion" as a hub reflecting the real structure of the world and the relationship of all things. Conscience is clear, that is, Cheng Hao's saying that "the outline is the grand duke, and the things come and go" ("Ercheng Collection: Answering the Book of Mr. Zhang Zihou"), that is, based on the relationship of emotions, the order of things is maintained and objectively displayed. This extreme way of expounding "me" is not Yang Ming's ingenuity, but the elaboration of the metaphysics of "business theory". When analyzing The "Oneness Theory" of Song Ming's theory, Feng Youlan pointed out that this is to view things from the perspective of heaven, resulting in a realm beyond oneself, so as to have a "sympathetic understanding" of things. 11 "Sympathetic understanding" is to understand things in their own way. The connotation of Oneness is that different things, like a part of my body, are diverse in their own way, and at the same time can coexist in the way that Yang Ming said is "one heart and one virtue" ("Chuan Xi Lu • Answer to Gu Dongqiao Book"). In other words, based on the structural role of mental metaphysics, pure emotion is no longer limited to individual feelings in one corner, but has acquired a deeper connotation, becoming the true number of natural orders of heaven and earth to show themselves, that is, the heart of heaven and earth. From this point of view, pure emotion plays a pivotal role in the order of "All-That-Is": removing the veil of false fabrication, restoring the original connection between man and things, and revealing the order of things. The objective order of things is presented in the form of self-knowledge and independent judgment of "emotion" in the order of All-That-Is, which is the objective judgment of the heart of heaven and earth (the conscience of the unity of reason). It can be said that Yang Ming expressed the goal of restoring the ideal order of the objective world in a way that seemed to emphasize subjective emotions extremely; its creativity was reflected in the stimulation of the proper order and efficient operation of all things, and the transformation and transformation of the world.
All in all, Yang Ming continued the metaphysical thinking of "business theory" since the Song Dynasty, and further explored the question of why the social order of the "individual" era was possible. Yang Ming's inductive metaphysics with "emotion" as the core demonstrates the structure of public generation in "individuals". Human hearts and emotions are rich in differences and diversity, and although different individuals have various differences, as long as they are equally "sincere and compassionate", they can also show lively nature in the opposite way, and then establish a warm public society. In the sense of affirming the difference and diversity of emotions, Yang Ming Mind realizes the coordination of different individuals; in the sense of All-That-Is, realizes "justice and right, the same likes and dislikes" (Chuan Xi Lu · Answer Nie Wenwei). This idea of order reconstruction is essentially the most fundamental solution to the "16th century problem" of the Ming Dynasty. It can be said that how strong the anxiety of the "individual" after the collapse of the old order in the middle and late Ming dynasties was, how popular the Yangming Xinxue was. Combining Yangming studies with magnificent social and political practices is the fundamental way to fully understand the ideas of the Yangming school. The political practice of the middle and late Ming Dynasties in the past one hundred and fifty years has also fully exposed the inherent tension of YangMing Xinxue. Gu Xiancheng of the Donglin School criticized Yang Minghou for falling into the ills of "delaying in humility and keeping silent" and "colluding with the same stream" ("Testimonial Compilation: On the Words of Sin"). Liu Zongzhou, the teacher of Huang Zongxi, also pointed out: "Today, when we argue about conscience and its shortcomings, the rampant people participate in the knowledge of affection, and the first is good; the ultra-pure people are vain, and the good is the thief." These abuses are actually common problems of human emotion. What the human mind presents at the moment is not necessarily conscience, but may also be an illusion of human desire or illusion. That is to say, Yangming Mind Metaphysics gives full play to the enthusiasm and creativity of "emotion" and the connection between all things, but does not develop an ideological mechanism to overcome the evils of "emotion". Exploring the root causes of this political and religious dilemma and how to solve it is precisely the mission of the Yangming school thinkers, including Huang Zongxi.
<h1 class="pgc-h-arrow-right" data-track="114" >2. The Theory of Mentality in the Ming Yi to Be Visited and Its Advancement of YangMingxue</h1>
Wang Hui believes that the different imaginations of Confucians for the rule of three generations since the Song Dynasty are the internal driving force for changes and innovations within Confucianism. 12 This theory incisively points out the political and religious connotations of the study of mind. In fact, it can also be said that it is the ongoing ideological innovation movement within Song Ming Theory that has led to different imaginations of the theorists of the rule of the three generations. Huang Zongxi's "Ming Yi To Be Visited" exposition of the rule of the three generations is significantly different from that of previous theorists. Zhu Zi and Yang Ming's discourse on the rule of three generations is carried out at the level of psychology, without a meticulous analysis of the objective socio-political system. Huang Zongxi is different, and the whole book of "Ming Yi to Be Visited" reviews the political reality of "taking the world as the private property of the emperor" for two thousand years according to the political principle of "taking the world as the world under the world" for more than three generations, and designs an ideal political system. Previous studies in the academic circles have paid much attention to the differences and transformations of their ideological forms, rather than paying attention to the relationship between this and the internal ideological innovation of the Yangming School in the middle and late Ming Dynasties. In other words, the many differences in the three-generation rule of Huang Zongxi and Wang Yangming are not only caused by external reasons such as the Ming and Qing Dynasties, but mainly by the theoretical achievements jointly promoted by several generations of thinkers of the Yangming School. Huang Zongxi said:
At the beginning of life, each man is selfish, and everyone has his own interests, and there are public interests in the world that are not or prosperous, and there are public nuisances that are not or removed. There are those who come out, not to benefit from their own interests, but to make the whole world suffer from them, not to harm their own harm, but to make the world release their harm. ...... The ancients took the world as the mainstay, the king as the guest, and the ruler who lived in the world and operated for the world. ("Ming Yi To Be Visited, Yuan Jun")
Huang Zongxi pointed out that selfishness and selfishness are the "original state" in human nature, and at the same time, according to the Confucian political ideal of serving the public, he pointed out that the original intention of politics is to promote public interests and eliminate public harm, and the duty of the ruler is to maintain the publicity of the world. Previous research has focused on the opposition between the two political principles of "more than three generations" and "three generations below", and has relatively ignored the question of how possible the transition from the "original state of human nature" to "three generations of politics" is possible. We need to make an in-depth analysis of this. Huang Zongxi's theory of human nature seems to be contrary to the Confucian tradition of mental nature, but in fact it is not the case. First of all, Huang Zongxi still adheres to the traditional Confucian political theory of the virtue of the Holy King: the Holy King has broken through the original state of human nature in the internal saintly aspect, regardless of personal interests and losses, and regards the world as his own responsibility; on the foreign king's side, he has established a political public structure to benefit the people of the world. Second, the mechanism by which the Holy King established politics and unified the people still came from the public nature of human nature. Huang Zongxi believes that publicity comes from human nature, not from the acquired production of the Holy King. His interpretation based on the "discernment of life" states: "The ears, eyes, mouth, and nose are the pops of qi." There is nothing to do with the qi, so it is also known as sex. However, if it is sex, then it is necessary to point out the command of its master in the qi, and this side is sex. Therefore, the pop of the ears, eyes, mouth, nose and mouth is not called sex. ("Ming Confucianism Case: The Case of Xueshan Studies") 13 "Yuanjun" section said that "each man is selfish, and each person benefits", that is, the self-satisfaction of the desires of the eyes, the eyes, the mouth, and the nose, which is the original state of birth and existence, and it is also a state of self-isolation, and a gentleman is not a nature. The "command of the Lord" is the compassion and love of all people, which breaks through the limitations of biologicality and liberates the individual from the closed state of self-centeredness, which is sex. Therefore, Huang Zongxi did not put forward the "selfish" theory of human nature, he advocated the "rule of three generations" based on the theory of sexual goodness. The "Original Law" section also clearly proves that "the rule of three generations" is "the ancient saint king's compassion and love for others and operators", the holy king established farming, schools, marriage, military and other systems to protect the material interests and spiritual needs of the people, and finally realized "hiding the world under the world". "Hiding the world under the heavens" means that all the resources under the world are open to the people and are not exclusive to the monarch. The way in which the Holy King expanded his compassion for his lover was his duty as a monarch: to maintain this open system by establishing a political and religious system, and to achieve the realm of "the law is more sparse and the more chaotic it is, the less it is done" (Ming Yi To Be Visited, Original Law). This is the fundamental law of the "rule of three generations", which ensures that the realization of individual self-interest and the harmony between individuals are possible. In summary, Huang Zongxi's ideal of "rule of three generations" is to build human society into an efficient and autonomous open system, which is essentially a version of Song Mingxue's "rule of three generations" discourse, that is, the application of the principle of building a community of heaven and earth. In the system of science, heaven and earth are an internally related and efficiently operating self-organizing system and an open system, and Lilly is the order and harmony of the community of heaven and earth. The Confucian system of ritual music is fundamentally based on the dimension of "heaven". The mechanism by which the Confucian system of ritual music works is based on human nature and is able to reconcile the different individuals. In Huang Zongxi's theory, the transition from the "primordial state of human nature" to the "three generations of politics" is undoubtedly a function of the Confucian liturgical system. In fact, this transition must undergo two transformations: first, at the group level, human beings from the primitive state of "selfishness" to a harmonious and efficient state of civilization; second, at the individual level, human beings from a self-enclosed, isolated state of existence to a state of existence that is mutually accessible to each other. These two transformations are not achieved by reconciling selfish desires between individuals, but are based on the dimension of "heaven" and liberate the individual from the self-centered closure. Human beings are not limited by the biological nature of human nature, but build a beautiful community by maintaining compassion and loving people, and obtain a broader and more lofty meaning. For example, the Way the Holy King fulfilled his humanity was to objectify and institutionalize his compassion for his lover, and at the same time to stimulate the compassion and love of all people to achieve this transformation. This is precisely the goal of Song Ming's study of mind.
In summary, there is a system of mentality hidden in Huang Zongxi's "Ming Yi to Be Visited", and it is necessary for us to clarify its specific ideological mechanism in order to fully grasp the internal logic of Huang Zongxi's thought. The following takes Huang's public-private view as an example to make further analysis and explanation.
The "Original King" interprets "the world is public" as safeguarding the private interests of the people of the world. This concept of public and private is one of the core ideas of the Ming Yi To Be Visited. Wang Fansen pointed out that this is related to the new trend of interpretation of public and private issues in late Ming Science, such as He Xinyin and Gu Yanwu, who have similar formulations14. In fact, the direct source of Huang's discourse is his teacher Liu Zongzhou. Huang Zongxi's unique interpretation of the "discernment of life" is the basis of his three generations of governance ideas. Huang Zongxi interpreted the "desire of the eyes, the mouth and nose" and the "heart of compassion and love" as the relationship between the popularity of qi and the domination (qi and reason), which means that people's private interests and publicity can be realized together in an integrated way, thus directly laying a new connotation of the public and private concepts in "Ming Yi to Be Visited". The question that has not yet been clarified is: How is it possible to rationalize the theory of human nature? How to point out the "command of the Lord" from the "selfishness of human desires" to present its public connotation? This requires going back to his teacher Liu Zongzhou. Because Huang's "Discernment of Life" is a retelling of Liu Zongzhou's interpretation of Mencius's "Mouth to Taste" chapter. The main point of Liu Zongzhou's interpretation is to redefine sex and life at the level of the heart, and even call it Mencius's sexual goodness: "There is no name for gai life, and in general, all of them are also hearts." Liu Zongzhou's article "Original Heart" makes a very detailed conceptual analysis of the above views, which is very philosophical and creative:
Between heaven and earth, everything is also. Man is born and the most spiritual one is also. Anger dwells in the void, so the spirit, and the heart is also unified, and the Lord of life is also. ...... The natural and intolerant of life, the desire also. Lust and indulgence, too, even evil. And those who have no faults, rationally. Its reason is called sex, called fate, and called heaven. It is written on the desirer, the affection, and the inexhaustible change. Its negative feelings come out, and those who are not poor are also. Or phase ten hundred, qi and quality also. ("Original Heart")
The biggest feature of Liu Zongzhou's article is that he defines "desire" as "the natural and intolerable one of vitality", which is also the "business" mentioned above. As the spirit of all things, man has the ability to flexibly use "business". This ability is in the heart, and the heart is dominant. Liu Zongzhou defined the "heart" as the field of communication between man and heaven and earth, and from this point of view, the main concepts of Song Ming's theory were all completely defined, and a sophisticated conceptual system was constructed. Its novelty is first manifested in the integration of "benevolence" and "desire" with "business". On the one hand, the "business" of the human heart is the benevolent body - the human heart "has its own business that cannot be tolerated" in the quiet (Liu Zongzhou's "Answer to the Ye Runshan People's Department"), which is the benevolent body. On the other hand, the natural and intolerable nature of the human heart (business) is "desire." "Benevolence" and "desire" are different names and the same reality, both refer to the "business" that runs through the subjective and objective worlds and dominates the changes in things. In terms of its intrinsic relationship with all things in heaven and earth, and the endless flow of "business", it is called "benevolent body". In its case that it always presents itself in a natural and irrepressible way, it is called "desire." This definition has achieved two breakthroughs: one is the inclusion and promotion of "desire"; the other is a new interpretation of "business". Liu Zongzhou believes that the self-presentation of vitality (desire) can be divided into three categories: (1) there is no constraint, too wanton, this is the state of "passing"; (2) "over" has developed to a serious extent, which is the state of "evil"; (3) the state of no fault is incomparable, just right, this is "reason". This principle is not the product of the reconciliation of transgressions and inadequacies, but the theoreticians often say that everything is "naturally within itself", that is, the right order in the universe of heaven and earth. This is the mystery of the endless and dynamic balance of the universe of heaven and earth, and it is also the basic premise of business metaphysics. Liu Zongzhou used "sex", "life" and "heaven" to express the nature and transcendent meaning of "reason". This argument raises the level of "desire," which is no longer a derogatory object, but a way in which "business" (absolute value) presents itself. More importantly, Liu Zongzhou no longer defines sexual principles from the level of "being born quietly", but speaks from the level of the order and order of "business" (the principle of the heart). This is a revolutionary change from the previous tradition of science.
Defining the theory of sexuality from the level of "being born above" is the result of what Montwentong calls "innate pre-formation"15. This is the most typical theoretical paradigm in the system of science, shaping the sexual nature of the Song and Ming dynasties that seeks the mental ontology inward. In the text quoted above by Liu Zongzhou, business is no longer spoken in the sense of innate pre-formation, but in the concrete process of showing its own existence. Because the order is presented when the business has fully developed itself, its development methods include "feeling", "talent", "qi", "quality" and so on. The following is illustrated by the theory of "temperamental nature". Liu Zongzhou believes: "Sex is only the nature of temperament, and the righteous, the nature of temperament, is also sex." The original meaning of the nature of temperament refers to the order and order in which thousands of different qi and quality are presented in the course of their development, and this order is the nature of righteousness, that is, "a little true life, is the metaphysical one" in temperament ("Temperament Theory"). In other words, Liu Zongzhou's business metaphysics has a unique temporality: business is not an innately pre-formed entity, but gradually develops itself in a specific temperament and things, and finally appears in the most complete and orderly form. As a complete form, the organization is an objective existence that can be recognized in a rational way. Obviously, Liu Zongzhou's theory of temperament fully demonstrates how it is possible to solve the theory of human nature that rational qi (desire) is one, and how to point out the ideological mechanism of "the order of the master" from the "selfishness of human desire". And this kind of idea that had the greatest impact on Huang Zongxi was put forward by Liu Zongzhou in response to the abuses of Yang Mingxin.
As mentioned earlier, YangMing Mind Metaphysics did not develop an ideological mechanism for overcoming the evils of "emotion". In short, this so-called fraud means that the human heart is confined to the inner closed loop formed by human desire or mysterious illusions, unable to communicate with the heavens and the earth, let alone corrected and promoted. Returning to Liu Zongzhou's thought, it is not difficult to find its pertinence. Liu Zongzhou emphasized that the infallible place of "desire" is "reason", and the relationship between "reason" and "desire" is no longer a diametrically opposed relationship. This is a response to the question of how the solitary individual (the subject of desire) in the aforementioned "post-16th century problem" constructs social order, and it is also the source of the public-private debate in the Ming Yi To Be Visited. Liu Zongzhou's business metaphysics put forward a new interpretation of "business", on the one hand, it returns to the overall order of human communication with heaven and earth, opening the inner closed loop of the human heart; on the other hand, it gets rid of the theory of innate pre-formation, emphasizes the objective order in the process of outward expansion of "business", and makes objective chastity and implementation of the creativity of conscience. This is the source of Huang Zongxi's writings, including the Ming Yi To Be Visited.
Huang Zongxi has a further interpretation of his teacher's thoughts: "Sex is empty and imaginable, the heart is in people, compassion, shame, resignation, right and wrong, can be recognized." Pushing this recognizable person to its extreme, then in the emptiness, the veins are clear, and the nature is seen without seeing the heart. If the widow enters the well and has compassion, the stone fire and lightning are not exhausted, and the end is full of compassion, and there is nothing but a sexual body. The focus of this passage is to emphasize the expansion of the imaginable sexual theory of emptiness and nothingness from the state of "stone, fire, electric light" to the state of "pushing to its extremes", so that its creative connotation is highlighted in the process of objectification. Knowing this, we can understand the root cause of the obvious difference between Huang Zongxi's three generations of discourse and the previous theorists: this is the result of the ideological innovation within the Yangming school in the middle and late Ming dynasties in response to the shortcomings of Yangming school, especially the theoretical results of Liu Zongzhou's philosophy.
<h1 class="pgc-h-arrow-right" data-track="116" >3. New Horizons of Huang Zongxi's Thought: Taoism, Scripture, and Politics</h1>
Huang Zongxi put forward a new vision of publicness on the basis of his divisional scholarship, and his ideological position can be summarized as an open philosophy of publicness. The creative thinking of Liu Zongzhou and Huang Zongxi is manifested in the proper balance between individuality and publicness. This balance is not a blind compromise, but a completely new shift in philosophical positions. The following is illustrated by the doctrine of "tempering in fact" as an example. Liu Zongzhou pointed out: "In addition to ordinary clothes and drinks, induction rewards can not be done. In the meantime, it is ever-changing, and it is impossible to foresee, and to take them one by one, such as the treatment of things by the degree of power. Although the degree of power is in me, and the weight of the form, the length and length, still listen to things, I have nothing to do with it, so I am obedient to everything and ruthless. "("Saying Things") Things integrate the mind and things, representing the field of human practice. In modern philosophical terms, it has the characteristics of the harmony of subject and object: on the one hand, the completion of the matter depends on the adjudication power of "I", which reflects the insistence on the self-adjudication and self-development of the "mental body" of the mind; on the other hand, it can respect the objective regularity of things and remain open to things. In Yang Ming's view, the connotation of the doctrine of "honing in matters" refers to the exercise of the power of conscience in the field of practice to ensure the objectivity of things in the perception of conscience. However, due to the inherent closed loop in the aforementioned theory of conscience, it is often impossible to implement this connotation. The goal of Liu Zongzhou's theory is obviously to open the inner closed loop of the human heart with the openness of "things", and to use the objectivity of "things" to cherish and implement the creativity of conscience. In other words, this discourse implies a new philosophical vision: conscience is no longer manifested in the form of pre-existent predestination, but is completely integrated with things, expanding outward with the objectivity and openness of things. This transforms the tension between individuality and publicity, achieving the right balance. The in-depth expansion of this vision is the task of Huang Zongxi's philosophy. Huang Zongxi's innovation was mainly manifested in the expansion of it into the study of Taoism, scripture and history, and political and religious studies. The following is a new ideological significance from three aspects.
First, the philosophy of "things" develops an open concept of Taoism, creating an open academic platform of the Ming Confucianism Case, which is also an application of public social principles. One of the characteristics of "things" is that every thing is unique, things in different fields have different rationalities, and things and reasons are independent and self-sufficient. Zhang Xuecheng once commented on the similarities and differences between Yang Ming, Liu Zongzhou, and Huang Zongxi: "Although the history of the referee is awarded, although it is out of one, but the face is very different, and each of them has its own accidents. This phrase is a recognition of the uniqueness of each person's "thing", and the "historical judgment and acceptance" of "out of one" shows the other side of the philosophy of "things". Because the "things" discussed by Liu Zongzhou and Huang Zongxi are the field of self-judgment of the mind and body, this also means that the philosophy of "things" will not be lost in the multiplicity, and can achieve the right balance between the individual and the public, one and many. In essence, this philosophy of "things" is an interpretation of the "outward expansion" type of conscience. Huang Zongxi's phrase "the mind has no ontology, but works hard, that is, its essence" ("Ming Confucianism Case: Self-Introduction"), is the most representative philosophical proposition of the outwardly expanding type of psychology. After breaking the ontological concept of innate pre-formation, the ontology takes concrete events as its own field of development. Here, the ontology is not limited to a certain form, but develops into different forms in different practice fields, and various forms are the contents of the ontology. This proposition strongly embodies the open nature of the Tao, which confronts the richness of everyday life. In other words, once the study of mind revolves around the outward expansion of "things", it has a completely different connotation from the innate pre-formation theory of inward return thinking: its pursuit of business is integrated with the vast universe of heaven and earth, and the specific daily life, and the "things" thus have cosmological significance, thus completely opening the inner closed loop of the human heart. On the other hand, different personnel affairs have their own internal order and order (one thing and one righteousness), which is inherently formed in the process of carrying out "things". This intrinsicity is the basis for laying the foundation for the division of labor between different knowledge and occupations. The philosophy of "things" can fully respect its independent logic, and at the same time penetrate people's "business" in it; fully affirm the individual nature of each thing, realize the obedience to all things without losing its truth, and will not lead to the "cruel and ruthless" abuse of Zhu Zixue. In short, the philosophy of "things" of Liu Zongzhou and Huang Zongxi reshapes the rational spirit of mind science by constructing a new mental structure. This spirit of rationality is the ideological basis of the book "The Case of Ming Confucianism". Academics have always appreciated the book as "organizing knowledge by way of flat analogy", which objectively highlights the academic qualities of each school and "has independent and open significance".16 From the book "Fa Fan" and the two "Prefaces", it can be seen that this is the ideological effect produced by Huang Zongxi's appropriate use of the "matter" philosophical method to break the evils of Zhu Zixue and Yangmingxue. For example, he objected to the arbitrariness of the Zhu zi scholar at that time that "he must desire to go out of one way, so that the meishu linggen will turn into a scorched tooth and a dead alley"; he criticized the defects of the works on the history of science compiled by the Yangming scholars Sun Qifeng and Zhou Rudeng: the former led to "miscellaneous harvests" due to the shortcomings of emotional knowledge, and the latter caused "disturbing gold, silver, copper, and iron as one instrument" due to the disadvantages of Zen nihilism (Ming Confucianism Case: Self-Prologue Fa Fan). In fact, the theoretical ideas of the Ming Dynasty with various purposes are no different from the "things" of ten thousand specialities, and the differences between the various academic schools reflect the endlessness of the Taoist body (business). Huang Zongxi thus established an open and objective Taoist (academic) platform, so that each academic can show itself in a way that "as it is, it is what it is". This platform is based on Liu Zongzhou's philosophy, and its openness and objectivity are a verification of the superiority of Liu Zongzhou's philosophical approach. It can be seen from this that Huang Zongxi's repeated praise for his teacher's scholarship does have its philosophical basis. In addition, Huang Zongxi's integration of various schools of scholarship in the "Case of Ming Confucianism" is in fact an excellent demonstration of its principles of public society: academic history and the construction principles of public society have their consistency, and they should achieve the right balance between one and many, each with its own beauty, beauty and commonality, so that it is vibrant. 17 This is evidence that the centrality of Huang Zongxi's thought and the political wings are also shaped by the philosophy of "things".
Second, the philosophy of "things" has developed an open view of mind and morality, and has achieved Huang Zongxi's study of scripture and history. The philosophy of "things" respects the natural order of things, and contains a new understanding of the relationship between mind and matter, a new construction of the direction of the development of mind science. Huang Zongxi said: "The heart and things are integrated, the outside does not see people, the inside does not see oneself, and in the perfect goodness, all things are one and the same." (Mencius Says Gentleman's Further Study) The mind and the "thing" are fused into one, and the development of the "thing" is the development of the mind body. This is because "things" are based on the mind and things as structural elements, "things" as the things of the heart, and the heart as the heart of the "things". What the qualities of the work of the grid are not things that have nothing to do with people, but the hearts and things that are special in things. The goal of the lattice object is to have the right reason for the mind and the thing in the matter: on the one hand, the mind and body are preserved, and the spirit is stretched in the field of practice; on the other hand, the "thing" respects the independent logic of the thing, realizes the payment of the thing, and at the same time can penetrate the business of the person. This new theory of lattice matter was established in the theoretical system, and its theoretical breakthrough was to propose a new theory of conservation and introspection. One of the key figures is Sun Shenxing, a master of the Donglin School. Sun Shenxing continued the academic ideas of Gu Xiancheng and Gao Panlong, developed a new "Zhongyong" without work, and completely integrated the work of static storage and the work of moving: Tianli is the order of the development of temperament, so the work of meditation is manifested as the exploration of reason in the practice of academic speculation, and the work of meditation and the work of moving and thinking are unified in the practice of academic speculation. Sun Shenxing went on to put forward the proposition that "gentlemen guard against prudence and independence, but fear that learning is rare and late, and there is a great lack of convenience in the mind and body" ("Prudent Duyi And Erudition"), that is, the objectivity of things is the content of the development of the mind and body. This is the basis of the ontological work theory that combines the study of scripture and history, the study of the application of the scriptures, and the study of life. According to the author's previous research, Liu Zongzhou and Huang Zongxi were influenced by Sun Shenxing, and through the philosophy of "things" to completely integrate the heart and things, completing the outward expansion of the study of mind18. This shift can also be called the path of Yangmingxue's Taoist approach.
In fact, examining the "thing" philosophy of Liu Zongzhou and Huang Zongxi's masters and apprentices from the perspective of the philosophical turn of the Ming and Qing dynasties can show its new theoretical significance. As we all know, during the Ming and Qing dynasties, the ideological transformation of "the study of self-nature theory to the study of scripture and history" occurred. Judging from the master-disciple ideas of Liu Zongzhou and Huang Zongxi that this article focuses on, it is the ideological transformation of the internal psychology from "returning to the original inward" to "expanding outward". The ideological significance of this transformation is to realize the extension from the study of ethics to the study of scripture and history and the study of the world. The objectivity and institutionalization of adjustment in a psychological context that emphasizes pluralism, autonomy, and individuality have rekindled the academic spirit of Confucianism. For example, as far as Huang Zongxi's "heart and things are integrated", this is of course also the goal of Yang Ming's theory of "tempering in matters". However, YangMing Mind science is more inclined to separate virtue from intellectuality, which leads to its sexual theory focusing on the field of pure virtue. However, the end stream of Yang Mingxue is limited to the inner closed loop of the human heart, and it is even more opposed to the study of life and the application of the scriptures, "The heavens and the earth are falling, and he does not care" ("Ming Confucianism Case, Donglin Study Case III"). This moral concept of separating morality from merit could not cope with the socio-political upheavals of the late Ming Dynasty, and "so when there was chaos, the strength was not enough to support it" (Mencius Said Mencius See Liang Huiwang), which reflects the dilemma of returning inward to the original type of mind. Huang Zongxi's philosophy of "things", intellectuality and virtue are integrated into things, and the exploration of the study of sexual theory and the application of the world are completely integrated, and there is no artificial gap between them. This is a breakthrough in the rigid Confucian moral concept, which makes the study of the mind face the real world. As a result, an open moral outlook on psychology was established, and the vision of psychology was broadened from the field of pure virtue to the whole field of learning, life, social and political governance, and the creativity of the world was regained. This outward-expanding new type of psychology is known for its characteristics of "those who speak their lives must be investigated in history" ("Wenshi Tongyi Zhejiang Eastern Academic"), that is, Huang Zongxi's study of classics and history that integrates the history of scripture, poor reason, and virtue from the philosophy of "things".
Third, the philosophy of "things" developed the objective dimension of mental science and achieved Huang Zongxi's institutional political and religious practice. The philosophy of "things" contains a unique way of thinking: the mind is the subtle form of things, and the practice and system of objectification are the obvious forms of things. In terms of Liu Zongzhou's philosophical discourse of prudence and independence, these two forms belong to the hidden subtlety of "single body" and have consistency. As mentioned earlier, the philosophy of "things" transforms the science of conscience, focusing on extending conscience from the state of "stone, fire, electric light" to the state of "pushing to its extremes", so that its creative connotation is highlighted in the process of objectification. This means that the study of mind has achieved a transformation from emphasizing the natural spontaneity of conscience to emphasizing the objectivity and organizational planning of its eventization process, which is the best conservation and implementation of the natural spontaneity of conscience. In general, the study of the mind is dedicated to exploring the deeper meaning of life, while the inward return type of mind emphasizes the natural spontaneity of the principles. The disadvantage is that it often ignores social history and reality, resulting in a lack of organizational planning required for political governance. The rootless disadvantages of ming dynasty psychologists' lectures are a typical example: detached from real social history and political conditions, in a low-level cycle in the closed loop of emotion and illusion. Quan Zuwang pointed out: "[Huang Zongxi] is said to be a Ming people who teach, copy the dross of quotations, do not take the Six Classics as their roots, bundle the books and engage in lobbying, so those who teach the scriptures must first exhaust the scriptures." The sutra is therefore not a pedantic study, so it is also ordered to read history. It is also said that there is not much reading to prove the change of reason, and there is much without seeking the heart, it is a common science, so those who are taught by the public do not fall into the evil of teaching. Huang Zongxi put forward the concept of "sutra so sutras" with the content of poor scriptures, reading history, reasoning, and self-cultivation, which has a very clear pertinence: to liberate conscience from the inner closed loop, and to obtain the necessary conditions for carrying out itself in the process of objectification of things, so as to reach the Tao.
The science of mind, including Yangmingxue, advocates the self-renewal of life, the impetus to promote and transform the world, in order to return to the rule of the three generations. Reason is the key hub. For example, different people, things, and things have their own inner "reasons" (righteousness). This "principle" (righteousness) is the norm of human ethics, the social and political order, the law of things, and so on. In the philosophical vision of "things", every thing, every person, and every position has its own appropriate "reason" or position. The so-called objectification is to determine it in the form of an institution. Each individual's part in his or her own duty is the way to maintain an open public society. This is the way in which the philosophy of "things" dissolves the "one" of the false abstract Taoist system, and the "many" as individuals obtains an absolute meaning with its own rules. The coexistence of "many" independence does not mean contradictions between individuals and social conflicts, which are the products of the rigidity or even collapse of the concept of social function. For example, Huang Zongxi's "Ming Yi To Be Visited" discusses issues such as the relationship between monarchs and subjects, laws, the military system, and the design of the school system, all of which are efforts to objectify and institutionalize duties from the principle of "public world". In essence, this is the unique organizational planning of the philosophy of things. As mentioned earlier, the Ming Confucianism Case is characterized by the integration of many doctrines of the Ming Dynasty in a way that is "what it is". This is the expression of the unique "organizational" function of the philosophy of "things". If "The Case of Ming Confucianism" embodies the philosophy of things and shows the merits of its academic history of "organization" thought, "Ming Yi To Be Visited" embodies its unique function of "organizing" the people and building an open public society.
In summary, the philosophy of "things" has opened up a new philosophical horizon, realized the philosophical turn of the outward expansion of psychology, and constituted the basic platform for the concrete development of Huang Zongxi's thought. The self-organizing system of the community of heaven and earth in the vision of science can be objectified and institutionalized in this platform. It should be noted that it is necessary to go through his teacher Liu Zongzhou to fully open up the new vision and internal logic of the philosophy of "things" in Huang Zongxi's thought. This is also the root of Huang Zongxi's repeated praise for Liu Zongzhou's philosophical contributions, as well as his emphasis on the inheritance of Shimen thought in many places. These are not the "unfinished habits of the party" and "the in-depth view of the portal" ("On the Ming Confucianism Case with Zheng Nanxiao: Answering The Academic Posts of Zhusheng to Ask Nan Lei"), which Quan Zuwang criticized, but self-statements with a solid ideological history foundation. It is based on Liu Zongzhou's idea of solving the malpractice of Yang Mingxin and his philosophical breakthrough that Huang Zongxi constructed a large-scale ideological system. Knowing this, the so-called "conservative" and "new" distinction summarized at the beginning of this article can be solved.
After-evaluation, re-evaluation of the relationship between psychology and the transformation of thought in the Ming and Qing dynasties
Gu Yanwu commented on the "Ming Yi To Be Visited" and said: "After reading it repeatedly, I know that there is no one in the world, the hundred kings can be revived, and the prosperity of the three generations can be returned." Zhang Xuecheng said: "The Huang clan of Lizhou came out of the gate of the Liu clan on the mountain, and the Kai Wan brothers studied the history of history." These two evaluations illustrate the development of Huang Zongxi's thought and its origins: Taoism (teacher learning), economic history, and political education. The discussion in this article shows that Huang Zongxi Thought is a solution to the metaphysical and political and religious dilemmas since the late Ming Dynasty, and we must grasp it in the context of the development of Song Ming Theory and clarify the ideological significance of the philosophical turn of the Ming and Qing dynasties. In other words, Huang Zongxi's thought shows the development of Song Mingxue from the philosophy of "reason" to the philosophy of "feeling" to the philosophy of "things". The philosophy of "things" is not independent of the philosophy of "emotion" in Yang Ming's mind, but is an extension of it.
All in all, Huang Zongxi gained the impetus and resources for ideological innovation within the middle and late Ming Dynasty, and his ideas represented the path of psychology in which philosophy turned during the Ming and Qing dynasties. The problem is that people are more familiar with the study of the mind that returns inward, but they are relatively unfamiliar with the science of the mind that expands outward; this is the fundamental reason for the many divisions in the study of Huang Zongxi's thought in modern times. Further, this also means that we should not only interpret Huang Zongxi's thought in the traditional (inward-return type) mentality or Song Ming theory, but also put it in the perspective of the philosophical turn of the Ming and Qing dynasties. Outward-expanding mental thought has its advantages in dealing with socio-political changes and ruptures since the Ming and Qing dynasties, and can avoid the inherent limitations of the idea of "returning inward". Thus, with the help of The development of Huang Zongxi's thought, it can provide an important entry point for re-evaluating the relationship between the study of mind and the ideological transformation in the Ming and Qing dynasties.
exegesis:
1. See Tu Kai, "Jurisprudence Neoclassicism: The Creative Transformation of Traditional Legal Philosophy," Modern Jurisprudence, No. 3, 2020, p. 54.
2. See Qian Mu, Academic History of China in the Past Three Hundred Years, Vol. 1, The Commercial Press, 1997, p. 32.
3. See Yu Yingshi, On Dai Zhen and Zhang Xuecheng: A Study on the History of Academic Thought in the Mid-Qing Dynasty, Life, Reading, and Xinzhi Triptych Bookstore, 2000, pp. 29-30.
4. See Wang Fansen, The Capillary Role of Power: Thought, Scholarship, and Mentality in the Qing Dynasty, Peking University Press, 2015, p. 185.
5. See Chen Chang, "Taoism and Politics and Religion in the Perspective of Science: An Investigation Centered on Zhu Zi's Commentary on the Analects of the Analects", Modern Philosophy, No. 1, 2018, pp. 120-127.
6. See Qian Mu: "Outline of Yangming Studies", Kyushu Publishing House, 2010, p. 87.
7. See Kishimoto Misuke, "The Problem of the Post-16th Century and the Qing Dynasty", in Liu Fengyun and Liu Wenpeng, eds., National Identity of the Qing Dynasty: A Study and Controversy of the New Qing History, Chinese Min University Press, 2010, pp. 301, 319.
8. See Kishimoto Mitsuru, "Ming and Qing Dynasties Alternate Jiangnan Society: The Problem of Order in China in the 17th Century," University of Tokyo Press, 1999, pp. 59-100. In addition, Zhang Zhiqiang's use of the term "lonely individual" to describe it is very apt. See Zhang Zhiqiang, "The Discovery of 'Conscience' is an Event of Civilizational Historical Significance:--The Late Ming Era, China's "Modern Era" and the Cultural Ideals of Yangming Studies," Culture Review, No. 4, 2017, pp. 56-65.
9. Mou Zongsan: "From Lu Xiangshan to Liu Fengshan", The Complete Works of Mr. Mou Zongsan, vol. 8, Taiwan Lianjing Publishing Company, 2003, p. 179.
10. See Feng Dawen, "The Ontological Meaning of "Things": On the Philosophical Implications of Taizhou Studies," History of Chinese Philosophy, No. 2, 2001, pp. 37-41.
11. See Feng Youlan: New Science, The Complete Works of Sansongtang, vol. 4, Henan People's Publishing House, 2001, pp. 188-189.
12. See Wang Hui, The Rise of Modern Chinese Thought, Vol. 1, Life, Reading, and Xinzhi Triptych Bookstore, 2004, p. 343.
13. This is the consistent proposition that Huang Zongxi's "Ming Yi To Be Visited", "Ming Confucianism Case", "Mencius's Sayings", "The Theory of Breaking Evil Cults" and other treatises are adhering to, see Zhu Guanglei: "From "Selfishness and Selfishness" to the "Ontology of the World"--Huang Zongxi's "Ming Yi To Be Visited" New Interpretation of the Theory of Human Nature", Fujian Forum (Humanities and Social Sciences Edition), No. 5, 2013, pp. 73-80.
14. See Wang Fensen, The Capillary Role of Power: Thought, Scholarship, and Mentality in the Qing Dynasty, p. 182.
15. Meng Wentong: "Answering Hong Tingyan", in The Complete Works of Meng Wentong, vol. 1, Bashu Book Society, 2015, p. 377.
16. Zhu Honglin, "Speculation and Study on the Essence of Confucianism in Modern China", Peking University Press, 2005, pp. 368-373.
17. For a more detailed discussion, see Chen Chang, "On the Discourse Construction of Taoism in the Case of Ming Confucianism", Xuehai, No. 1, 2012, pp. 155-159; "Between Individuality and Publicness: On the Metaphysical Structure and Contemporary Significance of the Ming Confucianism Case", History of Chinese Philosophy, No. 5, 2019, pp. 109-117, 128.
18. See Chen Chang, "The Construction of the "New Mind" of the Donglin School: A New Perspective on the Philosophical Turn of the Ming and Qing Dynasties," Journal of Sun Yat-sen University (Social Science Edition), No. 3, 2020, pp. 102-108; "The Qi Vision of the Philosophical Turn in the Ming and Qing Dynasties: Centered on Huang Zongxi's "Ming Confucianism Case" and "Mencius's Sayings", Modern Philosophy, No. 5, 2019, pp. 153-160.
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