Almost every year, the college entrance examination will become the focus of attention of the people of the whole country. So in our country, when did the school appear, and what kind of evolution has it undergone from ancient times to the present? How is the content of education different from era to era?
On the afternoon of June 9, Huashang Daily's cultural relics reporting and media communication column "Shaanxi Cultural Relics Exploration" walked into the Education Museum of Shaanxi Normal University. The museum is the first comprehensive education museum in China, among which the China Education Museum shows the history of the Chinese nation's education development for thousands of years.
Mr. Hui Gang, Director of the Education Museum of Shaanxi Normal University, was invited as the keynote speaker to explain the evolution and development of Chinese education to netizens in combination with a large number of educational cultural relics. 1.892 million netizens watched the live online video broadcast.
During the Five Emperors, the School of Learning "After that, Yu Yue Xia Yue Order"
The order is synonymous with ancient Chinese schools
Director Hui Gang introduced that the China Education Museum was opened in 2017 and consists of a basic exhibition and three thematic exhibitions. Among them, the title of the basic exhibition is "From The Order to the Modern School - Chinese School Education Exhibition". It mainly covers four stages - the revival of learning and teaching: the foundation of school education (124 BC - 1861 AD); The Rise of the New School (1861–1911 AD); East meets West: the establishment of modern schools (1912 AD - 1949 AD); The Development of SchoolIng (1949-1979 AD).
China already had schools as early as ancient times. According to Huang Benji's "Table of Officials of past dynasties and the table of Guozi Supervision", "Gai zi jianxue from the five emperors, the name is Chengjun; Later, Yu Yue, Xia Yue, Yin Yue, and Zhou Ren li pei yong in the middle, and built the four generations of the xuehuan outside." Therefore, the order has become synonymous with ancient Chinese schools. However, schooling at that time was entirely monopolized by the authorities. All those who can go to school to receive education are the children of the nobility.
The great change occurred at the time of the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, when there was a private school corresponding to official learning. Confucius pioneered private learning, spread cultural knowledge to the people, he had three thousand disciples, including 72 sages, Confucius also put forward the educational concept of "teaching without class, teaching according to aptitude" and so on.
In general, the emergence of the Hundred Sons and Hundred Families is a huge turn from "learning in the government" to "learning in the folk". Therefore, at the front of the exhibition, the video pictures of the Hundred Families of the Pre-Qin Dynasty were specially made, and the dynamic display of Confucius, Mencius, Mozi, Xunzi, etc., and later Dong Zhongshu, etc.
In 124 BC, Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty initiated Taixue. Successive rulers have continued to expand the scale of Taixue, and established the central official school represented by Guozi Xue, Tai Xue, and Si Shu Xue, and the local official school system represented by Fuzhou County School. At the same time, private studies, as a necessary supplement to official studies, are also developing continuously.
In the middle of the Northern Song Dynasty, the "Mencius" was added to form the "Thirteen Classics"
It has become the basic textbook for official and private studies and the main content of the imperial examination
In this part of the China School Education Exhibition, the main content of the exhibition is the teaching materials, including four categories: scripture teaching materials, primary school teaching materials, Mongolian education teaching materials, and literature teaching materials. In addition, the examination papers of the imperial examination in the feudal era and some ancient education and teaching objects are also displayed.
Director Hui Gang introduced that the ancient Chinese classics originally referred to the study of the essence of various schools of thought. Since the Han Dynasty, it specifically refers to the study of Confucian classics, the interpretation of their meanings, and the clarification of their righteousness. During the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, he placed a doctor of the "Five Classics" in Taixue, so that the "Poems", "Books", "Rituals", "Yi", and "Spring and Autumn" exceeded the status of ordinary classics, and Confucianism took the transmission and interpretation of the "Five Classics" as its profession, and since then the study of classics has become increasingly prosperous. In addition to the Five Classics, the Eastern Han Dynasty added the Analects and the Book of Filial Piety to the Seven Classics.
The Tang Dynasty had the name of the "Nine Classics", namely "Yi", "Book", "Poetry", "Zhou Li", "Ritual Ceremony", "Li Ji", "Spring and Autumn Zuo's Biography", "Spring and Autumn Ram Biography", and "Spring and Autumn Valley Liang Biography". Emperor Wenzong of Tang also engraved the Stone Classic, the "Twelve Classics", and added the "Filial Piety Classic", "Analects" and "Erya" on the basis of the "Nine Classics", that is, the "Kaicheng Stone Classic" now in the Forest of Steles Museum in Xi'an.
By the middle of the Northern Song Dynasty, the status of Mencius was enhanced, and the "Thirteen Classics" were eventually formed. Mencius was called "Yasheng", and the word education first appeared in ancient texts in Mencius. The Confucian classics mentioned in modern times mainly refer to these "Thirteen Classics". These classics are the basic teaching materials for ancient official and private studies, and they are also the compulsory content of the imperial examination.
There have been many works explaining the "Thirteen Classics" in previous dynasties, and the notes and omissions before the Southern Song Dynasty were written separately. During the Southern Song Dynasty, Shaoxi began to collect the most authoritative "Thirteen Classics" annotations and sparse joint editions before the Tang and Song Dynasties, forming a complete set of scriptures and their annotations, called the "Thirteen Commentaries on the Thirteen Classics". The collection of the "Thirteen Commentaries on the Thirteen Classics" exhibited in the museum, a total of 96 volumes and thirteen letters, is a copy of the Beijing Guozi Supervision Engraving during the Ming Dynasty (1573-1620 AD). "In popular parlance, it is equivalent to the national standard textbook published by the Renjiao Society. Originally stored in the library of Shaanxi Normal University, they are rare and precious. The note is an interpretation of the sutra, and the omission is the interpretation of the note. Therefore, if this set of books is to be understood, the main meanings of the thirteen sutras will certainly be understood. ”
The museum also exhibits 19 volumes of the "Four Books original". The "Four Books", also known as the Four Sons book, is the collective name of the "University Chapters and Sentences", "Zhongyong Chapters and Sentences", "Analects collection notes", and "Mencius Collection Notes". Zhu Xi, a famous theorist of the Southern Song Dynasty, took the "University" and "Zhongyong" in the Book of Rites and compiled them together with the Analects and Mencius into the "Four Books Collection", referred to as the "Four Books". The collection is a collection of notes from Zhu Xi in the Southern Song Dynasty, and an engraving of the Youyang Prefecture in the sixth year of the Qing Dynasty (1867 AD), which was originally stored in the library of Shaanxi Normal University, which is very precious.
"The imperial examination was created in the Sui Dynasty, and the main examination is the Four Books and Five Classics. However, the Four Books and Five Classics are all humanities, and there are few natural sciences. To compensate for these deficiencies, special exams are also set up. For example, a certain subject pays attention to the law; A special exam for a subject is algorithms; Or a certain subject is biased towards astronomy, etc. Through this form, special candidates are given special subjects. ”
The ancients also had primary schools and universities
But the meaning is different from what it is now
In addition to the "Thirteen Classics" to be learned in the imperial examination, ancient China also attached great importance to the education of children.
Director Hui Gang introduced that the ancient Chinese word "primary school" has two meanings: school segment and learning. As far as the school segment is concerned, the ancient school segment is divided into two sections: primary school and university, and children receive primary education before the age of 15 and university education after the age of 15; As far as learning is concerned, primary school refers to the study of language and writing, including phonology, philology, exegesis, grammar and so on.
The most representative primary school textbook exhibited in the museum is the six volumes of "Primary School" written by Zhu Xi of the Southern Song Dynasty, which is an engraved version of the early Qing Dynasty. The whole book is divided into internal and external parts: the four volumes of the inner part are divided into "LiJiao", "Ming Lun", "Respect for the Body", and "Ji Gu"; The two volumes of the outer part are divided into "Jiayan" and "Good Deeds". The main content is to educate children how to treat others, filial piety to parents, respect for elders, sprinkling and responding to advances and retreats.
Mongolian learning is a general term for early childhood enlightenment education, and is an important part of ancient Chinese private education. Its main forms of education are home school, village school and Mongolian school, etc., and the folk are also called private schools. Its educational task is to develop children's literacy and writing skills, master basic cultural knowledge, have basic ethical norms, and develop good daily behavior habits. The Mongolian teaching materials of different historical periods have their own characteristics, but they all pay attention to the study and inheritance of Chinese history and culture, and many famous scholars have participated in the compilation and revision of mongolian books. The earliest surviving Mongolian book in China is the Han Dynasty's "Urgent Article", while the widely circulated and far-reaching one is the "Three Hundred Thousand", that is, the collective name of the "Three Character Classic", "Hundred Family Names" and "Thousand Character Text".
Ancient imperial examinations were well organized
The Shaanxi Gongyuan was once the largest gongyuan in the northwest
According to Director Huigang, the imperial examination system is an examination system used in ancient China to select officials for the state by means of sub-discipline examinations, which was founded in the third year of the Sui Dynasty (607 AD), completed in the Tang Dynasty, through the Song, Yuan, Ming, and Qing Dynasties, and continued until it was abolished in 1905, and existed in Chinese history for 1300 years, which had a major impact on the development of ancient Chinese politics, economy, culture and education.
The form and level of the imperial examination vary from period to period. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, it was mainly divided into several levels: the children's examination, the township examination, the meeting examination and the temple examination, and the scholars obtained the birth of xiucai, lifting people and entering the army.
So how were the ancient imperial examinations organized? Director Hui Gang introduced that Mr. Liu Zeru, the old president of Shaanxi Normal University, has a stele in his collection, and his descendants donated it to the school. The inscription records the examination institution of the Shaanxi Township Examination in the eighth year of emperor Xiaozong's reign. The eighth year of Koji is 1495 AD, and the township examination is generally held in the autumn, so it is also called autumn, and it can be seen that the time inscribed on the stele is August of the year of Otoko. From the inscription, it is clear that the examination institution of the Ming Dynasty imperial examination can be clearly understood.
The supervisor of this examination was Li Han, the inspector of Shaanxi Province, Chen Dao, the envoy of Shaanxi Province, the deputy envoy of Shaanxi Province, Han Ming, the deputy envoy of Shaanxi Province, and Sun Wenyuan, the confucian teacher of Duchang County, Kang Province, Southwest Jiangxi Province. In addition, there are also "same examination officers", "printing officials", "examination paper management", "receiving examination papers", "receiving papers", "sealing officials", "transcription officials", "reading officials", "patrolling and searching officials", etc., and none of these officials are from Shaanxi.
"At that time, the township examination was equivalent to the provincial examination, and even larger than the provincial examination. According to some records, the Shaanxi Gongyuan was once the largest gongyuan in the northwest, and the candidates who came to the Shaanxi Gongyuan to take the imperial examination even included talents from today's Xinjiang, Gansu and other places. At that time, the Shaanxi Gongyuan was located near the north side of the west side of the west street in present-day Xi'an City, roughly between the present-day East and West Juyuan Lanes and Early Ci Lanes, including the Children's Park and its surrounding areas. ”
The examination papers of the Qing Dynasty Imperial Examination and the rural ink guides of some provinces reflect the content and requirements of the imperial examination at that time. Among them, the "Qianlong Gengyin Enke Township Examination Zhu Scroll" is a township examination paper during the Qianlong period of the Qing Dynasty, and the volume reflects the details of the candidates, the content of the examination and the annotation of the examination paper.
The museum exhibits the township examination Zhu Scroll of The Second Year of Guangxu (i.e., the Year of the Propylene, 1876) of the Zhou Zhi County Outstanding Gong Bingnan (廪生即秀才, Xiucai is the lifter after participating in the township examination). The relevant examination materials not only record the names of several generations of his family, but also record his teacher-inheritance relationship. This also shows that in the past, readers have achieved meritorious fame, not only will they be commended, but also glorify their ancestors.
So what is the content of the test? Judging from Gong Bingnan's township examination Zhu Scroll, the first exam title is "Zi Yue Tablets Can Break Prisons and Their Reasons are Also No Promises with Zi Lu", which is from the Analects, which is equivalent to an argumentative essay; There is also an exam title called "Son Baozhi of zongmiao enjoyment", which is also an argumentative essay. Also do a poem. Gong Bingnan's poems were highly evaluated by the teacher.
"Through this imperial examination, Gong Bingnan became a member of the Chengzi Examination and an official who chose Zhi County. However, in the face of the Qing Dynasty, there was no hope of returning to heaven, and after that, he had no intention of doing anything and taught and educated people throughout his life. How did Gong Bingnan later die? There were bandits in Zhongnan Mountain, and he led the people to resist the bandits. The bandits could not retaliate against him, so they took some of the villagers captive on the mountain and promised to exchange Gong Bingnan for them, otherwise they would kill these villagers. Mr. Gong Bingnan went into the mountains alone to save the villagers, but he was killed by the mountain bandits. In "White Deer Plain", Mr. Zhu's prototype is Mr. Niu Zhaolian, and Gong Bingnan and Niu Zhaolian are both people in the closed school. Therefore, after Gong Bingnan's death, Niu Zhaolian inscribed a tombstone couplet for him to call him a senior. ”
The museum also exhibits some educational and teaching objects, such as the "Double Dragon Seat Zhao Mu Zong Zhi Tiandi JunqinShi" tablet, the "Ten Must Not Fail to Read" tablet, and the Shocking Hall Wood.
Director Hui Gang introduced that the "Double Dragon Seat Zhao Mu Zong Zhi Tiandi Junqinshi" tablet is a Qing Dynasty collection. "Xunzi Li Theory" Yun: "Going up to heaven and down to earth, honoring the ancestors and longjun masters, is the three books of etiquette." The ancients not only had names and words, some also had numbers, under normal circumstances, only parents can call their names directly, others can not call their names directly, but teachers can. Ancient China has always had a fine tradition of respecting teachers and emphasizing teaching, and juxtaposing teachers with heaven, earth, kings, and relatives shows the high status of teachers in ancient times.
The "Ten Must Not Read" tablet is also a Collection of the Qing Dynasty, which emphasizes the importance of reading from ten aspects, and is a vivid portrayal of the ancients' emphasis on reading and learning literature and self-cultivation.
Most of the "shocking hall wood" is used by court officials, and the name is also different due to the different levels and professions of the user, among which the "shocking hall wood" used by the teacher is called "shibao", which later evolved into "ring ruler" and "teaching whip".
At the end of the Qing Dynasty, "abolishing the imperial examination and revitalizing the school"
The Teacher Training Institute has opened courses such as English and gymnastics
After the Opium War in 1840, with the opening of the process of "learning from the West to the East", Chinese education showed a historical trend from passive acceptance to active reform, and learning from the West and reforming old-style education became the main characteristics of the development of education in this period.
Director Hui Gang introduced that in the first year of Qing Tongzhi (1861 AD), the Jingshi TongwenGuan was established, which was the beginning of a new style of school in China; During the reign of Wu Shu (1898 AD), the courtiers proposed to change the law and founded the Kyoshi University Hall; Xin Ugly, determined to promote learning, promulgated the "Constitution of the School", and formally established the legal status of the new-style school; In 1905, the imperial examination was abolished, the faculty was established, and the former Guozijian was incorporated as the central educational administrative organ that ruled over the new type of education in the country, marking the basic end of the old-style education with the imperial examination as the link.
The educational relics of this stage exhibited in the museum include the Qing Dynasty's "Statutes of the King's Translation Academy", "Official Newspaper of the Faculty", "Handling the Tangzha of Shaanxi University" and other series of official government services. Among them, the "Handling of Shaanxi University Hall" was submitted in August of the 31st year of Guangxu (July 1905 AD), which was an official document submitted by the Imperial Court of Shaanxi Province to handle the Shaanxi University Hall, covering the educational situation in Shaanxi Province at that time, the rules for the handling of the school, and the appointed personnel.
"Shaanxi University Hall can be said to be the predecessor of Northwest University, and it is also the common predecessor of universities born in Xi'an. Where was the Statute of the School of Music awarded at that time? After Cixi fled to Xi'an, Zhang Zhidong drafted it in Xi'an and sent it to the whole country. It can be said that this set of letters handling Shaanxi University Hall is the beginning of Shaanxi higher education. Although Shaanxi University Hall is not the first university hall to be established in the whole country, it is relatively formal and at the same time relatively large-scale to build university halls, which began from this document and from Xi'an. ”
The museum also exhibits the new-style school textbooks of the time, reference books for students' entrance examinations, and students' diplomas. With the promulgation of the Statutes of the Gongding Academy, especially after the suspension of all township examinations in 1906, in order to avoid students' arbitrary transfer and transfer, and to ensure that the new type of education is on the right track, the diploma of study has been valued by all kinds of schools at all levels and all aspects of society.
There is a graduation diploma in the exhibition in the museum, which is the graduation certificate of a normal school in Liaoyang Prefecture, Fengtian Province in June of the second year of Xuanun (1910), and it can be seen that the curriculum is very complete, not only in Chinese language, history, self-cultivation, character, but also gymnastics, natural materials, Chinese painting, English, etc., which shows that it is a general teacher who wants to be trained at that time.
During the Republic of China period, textbooks were compiled by famous artists
There's not only civic education, but also sexual health education
Director Hui Gang introduced that during the Republic of China, Cultural Exchanges between China and foreign countries became more and more frequent, and school education showed a historical trend of integration of East and West. The newly established Ministry of Education replaced the faculties of the late Qing Dynasty, and the name of the school replaced the school of the late Qing Dynasty, gradually forming a modern education system completely different from the past.
The main exhibits in the museum are primary and secondary school textbooks, university basic course textbooks, teacher education textbooks, vocational education textbooks, English course textbooks, sex education textbooks, Chinese studies course textbooks, etc., with a wide variety and a large number.
In the 1920s, Chinese educators also combined the theories of adult education and social education imported from the West with China's national conditions, and put forward the new Chinese-style educational concept and slogan of "mass education". After the 1930s, the popular education movement flourished. The public education textbooks displayed in the museum include "People's Education" and "Dingxian Peasant Education".
Judging from the names of the textbooks on display, the primary and secondary school curriculum in the Republic of China period included Chinese language, arithmetic, history, geography and so on. There are textbooks, and the natural sciences belong to the natural sciences. There are plants, animals, labor, and handicrafts. There are textbooks for national defense education and textbooks for women's self-cultivation. There are also art textbooks such as Chinese painting and music, and there is a national painting textbook compiled by Liu Haisu. At this time, there was already special sexual health education, and there were many versions of the sex education textbooks on display.
Among the vocational education textbooks, there are textbooks on accounting, architecture and other aspects.
In order to cooperate with the smooth promotion of teaching materials after the reform of the new school system, the Republic of China period has begun to provide teaching reference books and teaching aids for teachers, and various examination tutorial books written for students' examinations have also appeared. The government implements an access system for teachers in primary and secondary schools, and the appointment system for teachers is adopted.
Interestingly, the graduation certificate of the Republic of China period also had the revenue stamp of the National Government affixed to it.
Thirteen years of education in shaanxi-Gansu-Ningxia border area
It has accumulated early experience for the new Chinese education system
In addition to the basic exhibition, the museum also has an exhibition of educational historical materials in the Shaanxi-Gansu-Ningxia Border Region, which shows the cave classrooms of the Yan'an period and the scene of the report on the opening of the Anti-Japanese University, and also displays many educational relics of the border area.
Director Hui Gang introduced that in the 1930s, the Red Army marched to Yan'an and then began 13 years of construction. The contribution to New China in the past 13 years has been very great, and it can be said that without the 13 years of the Shaanxi-Gansu-Ningxia Border Region, there would be no New China behind.
The written materials show the content of five aspects: the educational documents of the CPC Central Committee and the Shaanxi-Gansu-Ningxia Border Region Government, the school education textbooks of the Shaanxi-Gansu-Ningxia Border Region, the social education textbooks of the Shaanxi-Gansu-Ningxia Border Region, the newspapers, periodicals and photos reflecting the educational and teaching activities of the Shaanxi-Gansu-Ningxia Border Region, and the research results of the Shaanxi-Gansu-Ningxia Border Region Education Research Center of Shaanxi Normal University.
During the War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression and the War of Liberation, the CPC Central Committee and the Shaanxi-Gansu-Ningxia Border Region Government established a series of educational principles and policies, such as "cadre education first," "combining education with productive labor," and "education serving the masses of the people," in light of the revolutionary situation at that time and the actual conditions in the border areas.
School education in the Shaanxi-Gansu-Ningxia Border Region mainly includes cadre school education, primary and secondary school education, and kindergarten education. The main forms of organization of social education are night schools, winter schools, roving training classes, literacy promotion associations and literacy classes, etc., and the task is to liberate the broad masses from illiteracy and devote themselves to revolutionary war and social construction.
The Shaanxi-Gansu-Ningxia Border Region has successively run dozens of higher and lower schools, such as Yan'an University, Shaanxi North Public School, Chinese People's Anti-Japanese Military and Political University, Lu Xun Art College, China Women's University, Anwubao Wartime Youth Training Class, Longdong Middle School, Xingzhi Middle School, and Zichang Middle School. These schools not only trained a large number of cadres of all kinds at all levels who were urgently needed for the revolutionary war, but also enhanced the cultural knowledge level and political and ideological consciousness of the young generation in the border areas, and cultivated a solid talent force and mass foundation for the victory of the War of Resistance Against Japan and the War of Liberation.
Chairman Mao Zedong on education in 1960
It has been proposed to reduce the burden on students and improve the status of teachers
On October 1, 1949, the People's Republic of China was founded, opening a new era in Chinese history. From June 1 to 9, 1950, the first national conference on higher education was held in Beijing, and the development of higher education in New China entered a new stage. After the adjustment of the faculties and departments of colleges and universities in 1953, New China had a number of colleges and universities to cultivate high-end talents, and the system of study from primary schools to universities was gradually established and improved, and the accelerated education of workers and peasants and literacy education were widely carried out in various places.
Director Hui Gang introduced that from the early days of the founding of New China to 1960, Chairman Mao Zedong published articles related to education, which were included in the book "Comrade Mao Zedong on Education Work", and one of the articles has already talked about the problem of reducing the burden on students. In the book "On the Prestige of the People's Teachers", it is mentioned that the status of teachers should be improved.
The exhibits of this period mainly include school textbooks such as primary and secondary school textbooks, foreign language course textbooks, teacher education textbooks, etc., including reference books for students' entrance examinations, student entrance certificates and party group activity certificates, student homework books, grade registration forms, graduation certificates and graduation photos, teacher appointment letters and work plans, university commemorative books, and educational publications. Among them, the textbooks at the time of the founding of New China were still vertical, and the foreign language textbooks at that time were Russian.
In an area of the museum, the emblems of major universities across the country are displayed in a concentrated manner, and these school emblems are displayed according to different regions, which can also be seen in the number of universities in various regions of the country. With the development of education, some colleges and universities may have changed their names or no longer exist with the abolition, upgrading, and merger of schools, but the small school emblem has become a unique memory of history. According to Director Huigang, there are currently about 1,200 undergraduate colleges and universities in the country, of which nearly 1,000 are enrolled in Shaanxi, so the school emblem is still being collected. If you comb through these school emblems, you can even comb through a brief history of the development of higher education in China.
What should we read?
The Northern Song Dynasty educator Zhang Zai's "Four Sentences of Horizontal Canal" has influenced the present day
On the third floor of the Museum of Education, an exhibition of calligraphy with the theme of commemorating Zhang Zai and other famous Guan Scholars is being held.
According to director Hui Gang, Zhang Zai, a Northern Song Dynasty thinker, educator and founder of science born in Chang'an, was honored as "Zhang Zi" because he had lectured in Hengqu Town, Fengxiangmei County, and was known as "Mr. Hengqu". He had four sentences: "Establish a heart for heaven and earth, establish a destiny for the people, continue to learn from the saints, and open up peace for all the worlds." These four sentences have a far-reaching impact and have become the common pursuit of readers of different classes, different ages, and different cognitions, and are known as the "four sentences of the horizontal channel".
"What is our purpose in improving our conduct and cultivating ourselves and ruling the country and the world together?" It is not to feed and clothe for oneself, and to be generous to high-ranking officials, but to have the awareness of taking the initiative and the great feeling of dedication for the people, so that the world will always be peaceful. In a sense, the most popular phrase "world community of common destiny" today also revolves around this meaning. ”
Director Hui Gang said that Zhang Zi also put forward a sentence: "People's cells and things." It means that the people are fellow citizens and things are of the same kind. The concepts of equality, love for others, and cherishing things are all contained here. In addition, Zhang Zi also has a core idea: "use through the ages, and know the qualities". In today's parlance, it is "to focus on hard work, to abstain from talking, to roll up your sleeves and work harder."
"2020 is zhang zai's thousandth birthday. Now we carry forward traditional culture, establish cultural self-confidence, find self-confidence from tradition, Zhang Zai will be our great spiritual motivation and cultural needs, these spirits are still in the same vein. ”
Huashang Daily reporter Ma Huzhen/Wen Zhang Jie/photo (some pictures provided by the Education Museum of Shaanxi Normal University)