<h1 class="pgc-h-arrow-right" data-track="51" > introduction</h1>
When Díaz saw that a strong opponent had really appeared to run against him, he reneged on his word, arrested Madero, and during Madro's imprisonment, used various despicable and illegal means to "elect" himself as the next president again. After Díaz was re-elected as president, he thought that the power was already in his hands, so he released Madero from prison. Soon after, Madero fled to the United States.
In October, Madero published the San Luis Potosi Plan in San Antonio, Texas, calling on the people to rise up and not recognize the results of the election and the resulting Díaz government, raising the slogan "To be truly elected, not to be re-elected", promising to return the land illegally occupied during the Díaz period to its original owners, calling on the people to hold an uprising on November 20, and so on. Madero's call was echoed by people of all walks of life, especially the peasants, who were the most oppressed and plundered by Díaz, who took up arms and launched an uprising.
The peasants of Chihuahua, under the leadership of Pancho Via and others, were the first to revolt in support of the San Luis Potosi Plan; then, from the provinces of Coavila and Durango in the north to Morelos, Puebla, Villa Cruz, Yucatán and other states in the south, the flames of armed revolution swept through the land of Mexico. Among the rebel armies everywhere, the rebel army led by Northern Via and the rebel army led by Zapata in the south soon developed into two of the strongest and most effective units. Madero sent people to contact these peasant armies, who all expressed their obedience to Madero's unified command.
In February 1911, two peasant armies began to march from the north and south to the capital, and won victories along the way. By May, two peasant armies had captured many cities and towns in the north and south, and had crushed the main force of the Díaz Army. When the tide was over, Díaz had to announce his resignation and flee abroad. The Mexican Revolution won the first phase of victory. After Díaz stepped down, Mexico held general elections in October, and Madero was officially elected president to form a new government. However, after Madro came to power, he did not touch the old political institutions and the army, but still retained many of the original bureaucrats and officers; he also betrayed his original promise to "return the illegally occupied land to the original owners", did not carry out land reform and improved the miserable life of the people, but ordered the disbanding of the peasant armed forces.
This attitude of Madero aroused strong dissatisfaction among the broad masses of the people, especially the peasant masses. At the end of November, Zapata formed an independent Revolutionary Committee in the state of Morelos and published his programme of struggle, the Ayala Plan. The plan condemned Madero's betrayal, declared that the peasant army would no longer recognize him as the leader and president of the revolution, demanded that the land of the peasants seized during the Díaz period be returned to the original owners, and that one-third of the land of the large landowners be confiscated to the landless peasants, who had the right to recover the lost land in any way, including armed struggle, and so on. The publication of the Ayala Plan shows that in this struggle the peasantry and the bourgeoisie have begun to part ways, each pursuing its own goals.
The rise of the peasant movement also contributed to the development of the workers' movement, and many large cities in the country established trade unions, and in 1912, the largest trade union organization in the country, the "World Workers' House", was established in the capital. Spurred on by the workers' and peasants' movement, Madero had to prepare to consider solving the problem of land and improving the situation of workers, and issued a decree taxing foreign companies, dismissing incompetent American employees. The growing momentum of the peasant movement and the nationalist policy adopted by the Madero government to move from modern times to modernity have alarmed the reactionary forces at home and abroad, who have begun to collude and plan a coup d'état to overthrow the Madero government and extinguish the flames of the revolution.
In October 1912, Díaz's nephew Felix and some old military officers launched several armed rebellions; U.S. warships sailed into Mexican waters to cheer on the rebels. U.S. Ambassador to Mexico Henry Wilson conspired with Madero's army chief of staff, Uelta, at the embassy to plot a plan to overthrow madero's government. In February 1913, Ouerta staged a coup d'état that overthrew the Madero government and imprisoned the Madero brothers and others, and soon after sent someone to assassinate them. As soon as Ouelta came to power, he immediately restored the old order, brutally suppressed the revolutionaries, reclaimed the land of the peasants, and protected foreign capital. The coup d'état of Ouerta united the revolutionaries of all strata and formed an anti-Ouerta coalition, electing Calangsa, governor of Coavila, as the leader of the opposition.
In March 1913, Caronsa published the "Plan of Guadalupe", declaring that he would not recognize the Ouerta regime, calling on revolutionaries everywhere to unite in an armed struggle against Ouerta to defend the Constitution, and to this end established the "Constitutional Army", and Caronsa was elected "Revolutionary Fuehrer". In May, the peasant armies of Zapata and Via also announced their submission to Theranza's leadership, fighting with the Constitutional Army to overthrow the Ouerta regime. Beginning in the autumn of that year, the Constitutional Army launched a powerful offensive against government forces. In October, Obregun's Northwest Division captured Quliagan, the capital of Sinaroa, and then marched north to fight Sonora; the following spring, the two states were essentially liberated.
In November 1913, via's Northern Division conquered the northern stronghold of Juarez, liberating the entire state of Chihuahua, and after clearing the remnants of the north, he led his army south to the capital. At the same time, Zapata's forces liberated the southern states, and Gonzalez's Northeast Division liberated the northeastern states. At a time when the Constitutional Army and the Peasant Army were victorious, the workers also took active action, held several strikes, and set up a workers' armed "Red Brigade". In June 1914, the Constitutional Army approached the capital; in July, Ouerta was forced to declare her resignation and go into exile; and at the end of August, Karonza entered the capital amid cheers. The Mexican Revolution won the second phase of victory.
The peasantry and the bourgeoisie formed an alliance in the struggle against Uelta, but when the Uerta regime was overthrown, the alliance was quickly rifted because of the different goals pursued by the various classes. Karangsa demanded that the peasant army surrender its arms and obey his command and mobilization, but did not agree to the implementation of the Ayala Plan Approval Letter proposed by Zapata and other peasant leaders;
At the beginning of October, Calantha held a military and political congress in the capital, which Zapata refused to attend, and under strong pressure from the peasant army, the meeting was moved to the city of Agua Calientes, which was not controlled by Carranza. At this congress, the agrarian programme proposed by Zapata and the Programme of Political and Social Reform jointly signed by Zapata and Via were adopted, and it was announced that Karonza would no longer be recognized as the "head of the revolution" and that General Gutiles was appointed as interim president. Caronsa, seeing that the situation was not in her favour, hastily moved to Puebla, where she formed her own government, which she later moved to Villa cruz.
In early December, Via and Zapata simultaneously led a peasant army into Mexico City. Carranza also played the banner of reform in Villa crucus. This began with the publication of an order amending the Guadalupe Plan, announcing that various decrees and laws would be enacted to meet the requirements of the country's economic, political and social development. Later, the Land Law, the Minimum Wage Law, and the Law on Restricting Foreign Investment were promulgated successively. In particular, the Land Law stipulates that land reform will be carried out throughout the country, that illegally plundered land and water sources will be returned to the peasants, that a part of the large estate will be expropriated and divided into small plots for distribution to the landless and landless peasants. These decrees greatly increased the prestige of Carranza, and all strata of society, including a considerable number of peasants, supported the Carranza regime.
In February 1915, Karonsa promised to take measures to improve the living and working conditions of the workers in exchange for the Support of the Mexican Revolution and the Cárdenas Reforms, the largest workers' organization, the World Workers' House, which agreed to form the "Red Corps" to fight the peasant army in coordination with the Constitutional Army, while the two peasant armies of Zapata and Via did nothing in the capital, did not want to come to power, did not choose a satisfactory ruler, and did not pay attention to relations with all classes in the capital, especially the workers. As a result, the support of the people of the capital was lost.
Under the pressure of the Karangsa Army, the peasant army was forced to withdraw from the capital in January 1915. Caronsa then sent his commander-in-chief, Aubregorn, to lead the main force of the Constitutional Army and the "Red Corps" to pursue the retreating Via army to the north. From April to July, the two sides fought four decisive battles in Celaya and other places in central Mexico, and the Via army lost one after another and suffered heavy losses; at the end of the year, it was forced to retreat to the mountains of its hometown of Chihuahua to fight guerrillas. Another government army commanded by Kahuza also surrounded the Zapata army, which had retreated south to Morelos, deep in the mountains. By the end of 1916, Caronsa had largely taken control of the situation in the country, and it was easy to convene a Constituent Assembly in Queretaro in December to begin the elaboration of a new constitution. At the end of January of the following year, the new constitution was officially born. This Constitution retains the basic elements of the 1857 Constitution, but has developed further in many areas, notably the famous Articles 27 and 122.
The main contents of these two articles are: the land, waters and all above-ground and underground natural resources in Mexico are owned by the State, and only Mexicans can purchase or acquire concession rights to land, waters, mineral deposits, etc., and strictly restrict the right of foreigners to use Mexican natural resources; The introduction of a labour system of 8 hours a day (7 hours of night shift) and 6 days a week prohibiting women and children from engaging in work harmful to health and danger; workers have the right to organize trade unions and strikes, and employers may not dismiss workers without cause; a minimum wage, equal pay for equal work; and so on. In addition, other provisions imposed severe restrictions on freedom of education, the activities of the Church and property, in particular the provisions that prevented the President of Mexico from being re-elected, which effectively prevented the re-emergence of an authoritarian dictatorship and guaranteed the long-term stability of Mexican politics.
This Constitution of 1917 was one of the most important achievements of the Mexican Revolution, expressing the aspirations of the Mexican people to defend national sovereignty, natural resources, opposition to feudalism and democratic reform, and was therefore the most democratic and progressive bourgeois constitution in the world at that time. Many of its provisions were later widely cited by Latin American countries. In March 1917, under the new constitution, Mexico held a national election, and Carranza was elected president, and on May 1, he officially took office. The birth of a new constitution and the inauguration of the Caronza government, elected by the national elections, marked the end of the Mexican Revolution. With the promulgation of the new Constitution, the Mexican people entered a new period of struggle to defend and implement the new Constitution, in particular the conduct of land reform and the recovery of ownership of Mexican resources occupied by foreign companies. Successive Governments have also taken some action on these two major issues. Successive governments, such as Carranza, Aubregoron, and Cayes, have implemented a policy of allocating land to peasants, but the scale of distribution is not large.
Between 1917 and 1933, successive governments allocated a total of 19 million acres of land to 750,000 peasant households, but more than 2.5 million peasants still had no land, so the Mexican Revolution and the Cárdenas Reforms were far from meeting the needs of the vast number of landless and landless peasants, and 300 million acres of land were still in the hands of large estate owners. Successive governments have also initially imposed some restrictive policies on foreign capital, such as the promulgation of decrees such as raising taxes on the exploitation of underground resources, foreign companies must pay taxes on land containing oil, foreigners' property must be registered, and even passing the Oil Law, requiring foreign oil companies to act in accordance with the Petroleum Law, and so on. But under strong pressure from governments such as the United States, these decrees have either been suspended or terminated, or forced to be amended.
Mexico's democratic reforms, dominated by large-scale agrarian reforms, and the recovery of oil-dominated mineral resources occupied by foreign companies were carried out during the reign of Cardenas (1895-1970) (1934-1940), known in history as the "Cardenas Reforms", which was the in-depth development and another climax of the Mexican bourgeois democratic revolution. The main contents of the Cárdenas reform were: land reform. Shortly after Cardenas assumed office, under the 1917 Constitution, the Land Code was enacted, which provided for agrarian reform in the countryside, the confiscation of the land of large estate owners and large plantation owners, and distribution to peasants and Indians working in between. In 1937, Cardenas issued a decree amending several provisions of the Land Code, abolishing provisions restricting access to land by bonded farmers. In 1940, a new Land Code was promulgated, providing for the confiscation of more than 100 hectares of land for distribution to landless and landless peasants.
From 1934 to 1940, the Cardenas government distributed more than 20.1 million hectares of land without compensation, benefiting nearly 1 million peasant households, one and a half times more than the land allocated by successive governments in the past 20 years combined. Mexico's main economic lifeline, railways, oil, mines, and large tracts of land attached to it, are almost entirely controlled by foreign capital. With the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution, although Mexico's ownership of these resources and property was legally established, no specific measures have been identified and seriously implemented, and foreign capital still occupies and uses these resources and property at low "rents". After the Cardenas government came to power, it first issued the Decree on the Nationalization of Wealth in 1935, confiscating the real estate of the Church.
Reform. In order to fully implement bourgeois democracy, the Cardenas government in 1938 carried out a fundamental transformation of its own National Revolutionary Party, reorganizing it into the Mexican Revolutionary Party (the predecessor of the current ruling Institutional Revolutionary Party), changing the organizational form that had been controlled by local interest groups to an organizational system based on non-regional functional institutions. The Central Committee of the New Party has four ministries: labor, peasants, people and soldiers, and the two parts of labor and peasants are composed of workers' and peasant organizations such as the Labor Federation and the Peasants' Federation; the People's Department is composed of government officials, representatives of the urban and rural petty and middle bourgeoisie; and the Military Department is composed of representatives of the entire armed forces, so as to eliminate the control of military personnel over local Party organizations. Cárdenas also led by example and resolutely refused to be re-elected after the expiration of the 0th term, institutionally establishing mexico's presidential one-term system. In addition, Cárdenas removed restrictions on speech, allowed freedom of partisanship, granted women the right to vote at the grassroots level, and so on.
Protect the rights and status of workers. Vigorously develop education. The Cárdenas Reform was one of the most important events in Latin American history in the 1930s, a relatively deep and thorough bourgeois democratic revolution, which cleared the way for the rapid development of capitalism in Mexico, greatly promoted the economic, social and political development of Mexico, and had a great impact on the bourgeois democratic revolutions in some Latin American countries.
<h1 class="pgc-h-arrow-right" data-track="51" > the Sandinista Revolution in Nicaragua</h1>
Nicaragua is another ideal zone in Central America besides Panama to dig a two-ocean canal, and its geographical location is very important, so it has become one of the main areas for The Expansion and Intervention of the United States to Latin America after the War between the United States and the Spanish.
In 1911, the United States took advantage of the financial difficulties in nicaragua after the civil unrest in Nicaragua to induce the Nepalese government to sign the Treaty of Knox-Gastriro, seizing control of Nicaragua's finances, finances and customs. In 1914, the United States forced the pro-American government of Adolf Díaz to sign the Treaty of Brien-Chamorro, seizing the power to dig a separate inter-ocean canal in Nicaragua, build a military base in Fonseca Bay, and fortify the island of Mais (i.e., Cohen). By the 1920s, Nicaragua had effectively become a protectorate of the United States.
In 1924, due to the strong dissatisfaction of the people caused by the pro-American and traitorous behavior of the Conservatives, they lost the election and the Liberals came to power in victory. Not to be outdone, the Conservatives, led by Chamorro, staged a military coup in 1925 that forced the Liberals to step down, and Chamorro was once again president. The Liberals Sakasha and Moncada also immediately launched an uprising in the name of defending the Constitution and formed the "Freedom Army" against the Chamorro government, which led to a large-scale civil war in Nicaragua. News of a large-scale civil war in Nicaragua soon reached the ears of the patriot Sandino (1893-1934), who was living in Mexico.
Sandinista had long had anti-American aspirations to save the country, and after hearing this news, he felt that the time had come, so he resolutely returned to China in May 1926. He first worked in a U.S. capital mine in the north, standing on his heels, preparing for the uprising, using the $3,000 he had saved to buy weapons and ammunition, and organizing a small guerrilla group of 29 miners. In October of that year, they blew up the gold mines, declared an uprising, and dragged their troops into the rugged mountains of Segovias to the north; soon after, they engaged in direct combat with the reactionary government forces sent to suppress the uprising.
Seeing that the Chamorro regime was in jeopardy, the United States decided to "change horses" and sent Admiral Ratimore to "mediate" the armed conflict between the Liberal Party and the Conservative government. He first brought a ceasefire between the two sides, then forced Chamorro to step down and put another pro-American conservative leader, Adolf Díaz, on the presidential throne. The Liberal Party firmly opposed Díaz's presidency, took the Free Army to the port of Cabezas on the east coast, formed a "constitutional government", with Sakarsha as president and Moncada as minister of war, and renamed the Free Army the "Constitutional Army". In this situation, Sandinista decided to unite with the Liberals against the pro-American Díaz government and led an army eastward to the Port of the Sandino Revolution in Cabezas nicaragua to join the Constitutional Army, where he was later awarded the rank of general.
In order to maintain the rule of the Díaz government, the U.S. government ordered Ratimor and his Marines to land on the east coast of Nicaragua in late December, occupy the port of Cabezas, declare the area a "neutral zone", and force the Saakasha government to withdraw within 48 hours. Faced with the threat of the American army, Sakhasha panicked and dropped a large number of weapons to flee south. Sandinius organized his men, withdrew some of his weapons, equipped his troops, and returned to the old base of Segovias. Along the way, they actively carried out patriotic propaganda activities, replenished personnel, and the number of guerrillas increased to more than 200. After returning to the mountains, Sandinius established a base in San Rafael.
In April 1927, the Gendar army led by Moncada fell into the southwest surrounded by American and government forces, and asked Sandino for help, Sandino immediately led his army south, and LiankeSino Gat and other towns broke through the government defense line and rescued the Moncada army. Later, the corridor between Lake Nicaragua and the capital Managua was captured, the gate to the capital was opened, and the army was expanded to more than 800 people. The American Collidge government, seeing that the situation had become such in Nicaragua, had to decide to bring the government forces and the gendarmerie to compromise with each other, reach an agreement, and then jointly deal with the Sandinista guerrillas.
<h1 class="pgc-h-arrow-right" data-track="51" > conclusion</h1>
In May, The Collinians' private envoy, Colonel Stimson, reached a secret deal after talks with Moncada, and the two sides signed the Stimson-Moncada Agreement, which stipulated that Díaz would remain president until the 1928 election, that government forces and the Gendarmerie cease fire, that the Gendarmes would surrender all their weapons to the U.S. military, that they would receive $10 for each gun and set of uniforms, that policing would be the responsibility of the U.S.-trained and led National Guard, that some Liberal leaders would participate in the Díaz administration, that the United States would support Moncada as the next president, and so on. After the agreement came into effect, Moncada ordered more than 3,000 Gendar fighters to lay down their arms. The "Constitutional War" came to an end.