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From the report on the Yang Yuelou case, we can see the exploration and growth of "Declaration" in the early days of its establishment
Written by丨Gao Xinya
Gao Xinya is a Ph.D. student in the Department of History, Sun Yat-sen University.
As the earliest Chinese newspaper founded in China, the Declaration is a product of the emergence and root of Chinese society under the influence of Western learning and the East, and is influenced by both traditional Chinese cultural concepts and Western modern newspaper running concepts. It can be seen from the report on the Yang Yuelou case in the "Declaration" that in the early days of the journal, the "Declaration" was greatly influenced by traditional Chinese culture in terms of value judgment and language and style, but at the same time, it was also influenced by Western ideas and newspaper concepts, and some elements of "modern newspapers and periodicals" were bred in the soil of traditional Chinese society and culture. With the help of the Yang Yuelou case, on the basis of providing readers with instant news, "Declaration" guides readers to participate in the discussion of the case, shapes itself as an objective and neutral public platform, and strives to construct the legitimacy and necessity of this public platform.
[Keywords] "Declaration", Yang Yuelou case, instant news, public domain
Founded in 1872, Declarations is one of the most influential Chinese daily newspapers in modern China. As a new thing, newspapers emerged under the influence of the trend of Western learning and eastward learning, but it must also be rooted in Chinese society and sprout in the local environment. How did modern newspapers grow under the influence of both Chinese and Western factors? In terms of news gathering and writing, comment orientation, writing style, etc., what is its initial form, and how does it mature? What is the attitude of Chinese society towards the role of newspapers as a platform for public opinion? These questions are of great importance for understanding the growth and evolution of modern newspapers and periodicals, and for understanding their interaction with local society from the perspective of media social history. As an early newspaper with national influence, the Declaration can undoubtedly serve as an excellent text to explore these issues. Of course, answering these complex questions requires a lot of research work, and this article only discusses and analyzes the early form and social impact of the newspaper through the reporting and commentary on the Yang Yuelou case, which was quite sensational at the time, in the early days of the newspaper.
With regard to the early Declaration, there have been a lot of research results, discussing the issuance and operation of the early Declaration,[1] the literati characteristics of the early Declaration[2], and the adaptation of the Declarations to Chinese society[3]. With regard to the Declaration's coverage of Yang Yuelou's case, scholars have also discussed the role of the Declaration's role in Yang's case from the perspectives of the competition between official and non-governmental public opinion[4] and the emergence of the "public sphere"[5]. These discussions have focused either on the analysis of the text of the report or on the emergence of the "public sphere" in modern China, but have paid little attention to the growth of the Declaration itself. The Yang Yuelou case occurred in the initial period of the Declaration, during which the Chinese newspapers in China were "without support" in terms of reporting form and social role,[6] and the Declaration's coverage of this case can intuitively present the state of Chinese newspapers in the initial period. This paper hopes to observe the writing style and news gathering under the dual influence of China and the West in the early days of the journal through the report on the Yang Yuelou case, and then discuss how the new media that emerged in modern times shaped their self-image and participated in public affairs in the process of interacting with society.
1. The position of the literati and the orientation of running the newspaper: the chief writer of "Declaration" and the report on the Yang Yuelou case
The causes and consequences of the Yang Yuelou case and the trial process have been studied quite sufficiently,[7] and this is only a brief background introduction. Yang Yuelou is a famous actor in Peking Opera in the late Qing Dynasty, and Wei Abao, the daughter of Guangdong businessman Wei, had feelings for Yang Xin when she watched the play. From time to time, there is a rule that the good and the cheap are not married, and Wei's mother and Yang Yuelou had a secret discussion, so they robbed their relatives. At the right time, Wei's father was not in Shanghai, and Wei's uncle thought that it was inappropriate to marry between good and low, and prosecuted Yang Yuelou for abduction and theft. On December 22, 1873,[8] the two held a wedding, and the Yang Yuelou case was reported. [9] The "Declaration" published more than 40 reports related to the case, many of which occupied the front page, which shows the degree of attention paid to the case by the "Declaration".
After the case occurred, the chief writer of "Declaration" was the first to report and comment on the Yang Yuelou case. The main writers of "Declaration" are all Chinese, and they have a certain degree of autonomy in editing and writing. The chief writers exercised real power in this newspaper, and their own characteristics were inseparable from the growth of the "Declaration". [10] Therefore, when discussing the report on the Yang Yuelou case and the exploration and development of the Declaration, we cannot ignore the role played by the chief author. At the time of Yang's case, Jiang Zhixiang was the chief writer of the "Declaration"[11], and Wu Zirang and Qian Xinbo were also working for the newspaper,[12] and although the chief writers had different experiences, they were all "literati" from the imperial examination. Jiang Zhixiang, whose real name is Jiang Qizhang, was admitted to the township examination in 1870, and was hired by the Meicha Institute in 1872 when the "Declaration" was founded,[13] and left the newspaper after the title of the gold list in the 1877 examination,[14] and was succeeded by Qian Xinbo, who was a talent in the early examination. [15] Wu Zirang, the etheric student should be frustrated in the provincial examination, and was later appreciated by Zeng Guofan, but "the sex is not honorable, and he is not happy to advance", so he went to the newspaper. [１６]
The cultural background of several early writers was the same - receiving traditional Confucian education, taking the imperial examination many times before entering the newspaper, and even after becoming the chief writer of the "Declaration", they still did not give up the road of the imperial examination and tried to stand out in the scientific field. The chief writer, who has been influenced by traditional culture since childhood, has an indelible literati background, which directly affects his newspaper practice. Previous studies have mostly focused on Wang Tao, Liang Qichao and others and the phenomenon of "literati discussing politics", and have rarely discussed the specific influence of the literati's identity and educational background on the content of newspapers, especially the collection and writing of news and news. Through the analysis of Yang Yuelou's case, it can be observed that the literati background of the main writer not only dominates the newspaper's attitude towards Yang Yuelou, but also directly affects the abridgement of news content and the style of the newspaper's writing.
The cultural background of the main writer of "Declaration" first affects his value position, especially the evaluation of Yang Yuelou. Before the case, the "Declaration" praised Yang Yuelou very much, saying that "the general Beijing tune is not favoritous, just to look at Yang Yuelou",[17] and then there were many bamboo branch words praising Yang Yuelou. It can be seen that Yang Yuelou was popular with people from all walks of life at that time, and even had a certain reputation among scholars, which was also the premise that Yang Yuelou's case could attract the attention and controversy of the people. However, after the Yang Yuelou case, the main author's evaluation of Yang Yuelou immediately turned negative, characterizing him as "abduction" before the trial began,[18] calling Yang Yuelou an "abductor",[19] and commenting:
Yang Yuelou is just a good person in the Chuntai class, a peasant worker in the British, a prostitute with soap, a good and a low, respectful and inferior, since the turtle bustard and other eyes like beans, scabs and smells, and the waves follow the waves, and the gold and jade are defeated in it, and the person who is in the flower and wine also pretends to be a young man with skirts, and the case of abduction and theft is full of evil...... Fu Yang Yuelou is just a very small and very cheap ear, that is, to judge people by their appearance, the micro of the industry, regardless of it, and it is not as beautiful as a crown of jade. [２０]
Some scholars have pointed out that the stance of the "Declaration" at this stage may be due to the news source, and that the news gathering and writing of the "Declaration" in the early days of the journal was basically carried out by "the scribes of the official offices", and the source of information came from the official, and it was reasonable to adopt the official stance when reporting. [21] At the same time, the use of these words is colorful and inflammatory, and may be a means of stimulating public reading and attracting readers' attention. [２２]
There is another reason that cannot be ignored - the literati psychology of the chief writer of the "Declaration" who was born in traditional Confucian education. In the late Qing Dynasty, the social atmosphere in Shanghai changed, and the servants gradually changed from the "actors" of Israeli artists to the "stars" who were widely sought after. [23] Youling, represented by Yang Yuelou, although she was a lowly person, her income far exceeded that of ordinary scribes. [24] Under these circumstances, the hierarchical relationship between the good and the poor in social life has become weaker, and even some scholars have begun to make friends with famous people. Such a change disgruntled those who cling to the traditional hierarchical order. Therefore, the chief writer of the "Declaration" accused Yang Yuelou of "pretending to be a young man with skirt clogs in the land of flowers and wine",[25] In the opinion of the chief writer, Yang Yuelou was originally a "pariah", but he became a "star" and even married the daughter of a businessman, which is a destruction of the traditional hierarchical order. At this time, the position of the "Declaration" is not only a personal refutation of Yang Yuelou, but also a dissatisfaction with the increasingly relaxed traditional hierarchical order of the good and the low, and the superiority and inferiority as the chief writer of the "scholars".
At the same time, the cultural psychology of the main writer also directly affects the abridgement and trade-off of news content, especially when translating Western newspapers. On January 5, 1874, the "Declaration" published a report entitled "Questions and Answers between China and the West", which described the details of Ye Tingjun's torture and bribery, and made it clear that "the Xizi Daily, the history of Shanghai and the foreign countries and the various answers have not been translated, and they have been concealed by Hou Jie." [26] The author speculates that the report was reprinted from the Zilinxi Daily, and compared with its original English text, there are many abridgements in the Declaration. The Zilinxi Bao portrayed Yang Yuelou as a "smart, handsome, and professional"[27] person, but this passage was not translated in view of the writer's contempt for the literati psychology of the "untouchables". More "excessively" was the Zilinxi newspaper's criticism of the verdict of Chinese officials, saying that "we are afraid of such punishment, and we are contemptuous and disgusted with local officials," and later stressed at the end of the article that "this verdict proves that the Chinese, at least Chinese officials, do not even deserve to be called hardly deserve credit for semi-civilization." [28] In the author's opinion, the abridgement of the "Declaration" here is not just "Daiyi Hou Jie", otherwise it is not necessary to translate the details of Ye Zhixian's lynching and torture to extract confessions. The selection of content in the "Declaration" may be the main writer who adheres to the concept of "Heavenly Empire", and does not accept and recognize the evaluation of "semi-civilization". The main writer deliberately concealed the Westerners' evaluation of Chinese civilization, and the motivation behind it was that the main writer did not accept the criticism of "Yi Ren" and resolutely defended the psychology of Chinese civilization.
In addition to the value judgment and content selection, the cultural background of the main writer also determines the writing style of the "Declaration". Before the introduction of modern news writing standards in China, the early "Declaration" was "not popular in China for a long time" and "there was no canon to rely on",[29] and the main writer could only write the newspaper in his own familiar way, and the traditional literary writing method was introduced into the writing of news reports and essays. In addition, most of the readers of the early "Declaration" were also educated by traditional Confucianism, whether it was based on the writing habits of the main writer or the reading habits of readers, they needed to borrow a lot of literary techniques, so the traditional literary color of the early "Declaration" was strong, and the "Declaration" newspaper person concluded:
In the early years, although the text of the "Declaration" did not quote scriptures, it was profound and elegant, and not ordinary people could understand it. Fortunately, at that time, everyone who read the newspaper was well-versed in Hanmo, and the editor also boasted of the beauty of the text, and it seemed that many people could not read such difficult words, which seemed to have nothing to do with him. [３０]
Specific to the case of Yang Yuelou, take the article "Yang Yuelou's Abduction and Escape" as an example:
The peach and plum are frivolous, the poplar flowers are flying, and the Shenjiang flowers and willows are like this, not the embroidery pavilion. Mingshu also chases scabs, taken from Youmeng's clothes, and tries to note it. …… Zhonglang has a woman, who is only young and beautiful in flowers, the career of a goddess, the residence of the sister-in-law, and the words in the boudoir are flawless. There is Yang Yuelou in the spring platform, the appearance is quite burly, and the famous flowers of the lost product tend to be like a bird, and they are as sweet as a glutton...... Samsung is rotten, the cow girl is in the best period, and the cover is chosen from yesterday's long solstice. [３１]
After this foreshadowing, I got to the point - Yang Yuelou "abducted" the daughter of a Webster businessman. In the whole report, the name of the protagonist of the incident, "Wei Abao", was not clearly explained, and he was only called "female", and the news elements were insufficient. It begins with the description of "peach and plum frivolous, and yang flowers fly away", and at the same time there are dictionaries of "goddess" and "sister-in-law's residence", all of which belong to the expression form of traditional literature. At the end of the report, the main writer commented:
Sigh! The magpie bridge is high, the excellent person is a fake mandarin duck, the rat prison is a disaster, the old mother is a real beast, the children are ugly, He Kanxi dismantles the red luan, the old man is ambushed and raped, and he is afraid of becoming a dog. If you want to ask how to judge, please watch today's morning cloud. [３２]
This report is stylistically neat and loose; The content is highly subjective and kitsch, similar to a glamorous novel, with no news introduction and no news elements, which can be regarded as a concentrated embodiment of the strong literary color of news reports in the early days of the establishment of the "Declaration". In addition, many reports represented by "Remembering Yang Yuelou" are written from the source of the case, laying out layers of foreshadowing, and rendering the background with a large section of pen and ink, which is not so much "news" as it is actually closer to a literary work; The narrative of the article is superstitious, and there are often expressions of karma and reincarnation such as "I did something wrong in the past, but I didn't want to come together"[33]. The news report on the Yang Yuelou case in the "Declaration" has a strong literary color, and it is the result of the combination of Western-style newspapers and periodicals with traditional Chinese culture after they entered China.
For example, in the article "On the Prohibition of Women from Watching Dramas", the article talks about the way of Confucius and Mencius and cites the "Orders are only done, not opposed",[34] to enhance their persuasive power. Another example is "Chinese and Western Questions and Answers", which first uses the three generations to explain that governing the country does not need to be punished, and then points out through the mouth of the sages: "Confucius also said that if the punishment is not successful, the people will be at a loss, and the purpose is what they say." [35] The source of the persuasive power of the discursive essays at this stage is still traditional Chinese culture. In addition, arguments tend to be based on morality rather than based on facts and laws, such as calling Yang Yuelou "full of evil",[36] "misconduct",[37] and the implication is karma and that Yang Yuelou is to blame.
Through the Yang case, it can be observed that in the early days of the Declaration, the relationship between the Confucian education of the main writer and the tradition was difficult to separate, and the "literati" characteristics of the main writer were directly reflected in the "Declaration" through the value stance of the report, the stylistic style, and the selection and abridgement of the manuscript. At this stage, under the influence of literati and traditional culture, the Declaration presents the characteristics of "a particular Chinese literariness"[38], the form of news is extremely immature, the literary color is strong, the news elements are lacking, and even the protagonist's name will be published incorrectly[39]. The writing of argumentative articles also basically continues the writing style of the traditional Baguwen, which must talk about the words of Confucius and Mencius and the rule of three generations, and the source of persuasiveness is traditional Chinese culture.
But at the same time, it should also be noted that at this time, objective and brief news reports also began to appear, concisely explaining the time, people and events, such as "Yang Yuelou Explains the County", "Yang Yuelou Retracts Confession" and so on. It can be seen that although the chief writer was born as a traditional "literati", as a "newspaper man", he also began to explore how to write news and run a newspaper, which was an important embodiment of the professional consciousness of the chief writer of the early "Declaration".
In short, when reporting on the Yang Yuelou case, the "Declaration" was in its infancy, with a low degree of specialization, and the writing of the content basically relied on the exploration of the literati. [40] Taking the Yang Yuelou case as a starting point, it can be seen that in terms of stylistic style and value stance, the early days of the journal were greatly influenced by the cultural psychology of the main writer and the traditional Chinese culture, and the literati background of the main writer directly affected the journalistic practice of the newspaper during this period. But at the same time, under the influence of the Western concept of running a newspaper, elements of "modern newspapers and periodicals" have been bred in the soil of traditional culture, such as the "Declaration" in the case of Yang Yuelou to try instant news.
2. Instant reporting: an exploration of the timeliness of news
Ge Gongzhen once discussed the relationship between time and newspapers: "Reality is the greatest feature of newspapers, and it is also a natural trend for newspapers to collect materials and compete quickly and every minute and second. [41] The "realism" mentioned by Ge Gongzhen refers to the timeliness of newspaper news. In the past, the academic discussion of the Yang Yuelou case, and even the discussion of the early "Declaration", paid little attention to the timeliness value of the news reports in this period, and even the old newspaper people who worked for the newspaper also believed that the news reports of the early "Declaration" "had no temporal news value". [42] However, by observing the report on Yang Yuelou's case, it can be found that the Declaration, at the beginning of its publication, attached great importance to the timeliness value of news and strived to provide readers with immediate news related to the case. Although the newspaper has grown up in Chinese society and culture, it has also had some characteristics of modern newspapers due to the influence of Western newspaper concepts.
Before the Yang Yuelou case occurred, the "Declaration" attached great importance to the timeliness of the news. The "Declaration" specifies the difference between "new newspapers" and "ancient books": "The things of ancient books are the things of the past, and the things of the new newspapers are also the things of today." [43] The time of "Xinbao" is defined as "today", and the content of the report is close to "present" rather than "past" in terms of time, which is where the "new" is considered by the Declaration.
At the beginning of the publication of the "Declaration", limited by factors such as geographical distance, communication technology and transportation conditions, there was indeed a certain gap between the ideal and the reality, and the level of real-time news collection and writing was uneven. The old newspaper man of the "Declaration" once recalled the news report of the "Declaration" in the early days: "It is not quite appropriate to call these materials 'news', because it is really very old news. [44] Such an assessment is not unreasonable, for example, in the local news "Fujiang Tanbud"[45], which occurred in Shanghai, more than 20 days passed between the incident in late March and the newspaper on April 19 (May 25, 1872). News from other cities took longer to be reported, with some news arriving at intervals of several months,[46] and even occasional jokes about trivial matters that were years apart. [47] Therefore, one newspaper person pointed out in his recollection:
…… Seventy years ago, before the telegraph was established, it was impossible for what happened in other cities to reach Shanghai on the same day, even the news that happened in Shanghai itself, and because there was no real "news network" at that time, there was very little record. Some of the social news it has published...... It may have happened days or even months ago, and it was written as a drunken after-dinner conversation, with no temporal newsworthiness. [４８]
However, if we look at the news reports of the "Declaration" during its inception, such an assessment is somewhat arbitrary. At the beginning of its publication, the magazine began to try to report timeliness news, especially the news in Shanghai. For example, the first news report, "Galloping Horses"[49], was published on March 23 (April 30, 1872), which was a report on the previous day's Westerner horse race.
The Yang Yuelou case discussed in this article is an entry point for observing the timeliness value of news during this period. On the one hand, because the case occurred in Shanghai, the transmission of news was not limited by geographical distance, and on the other hand, the readers' discussion of Yang's case made the main writer aware of the social concern of the case, so he paid more attention to timely reporting for readers to discuss.
After the Yang Yuelou case occurred on December 22, 1873, the next day, the "Declaration" published a report entitled "Yang Yuelou's Abduction and Escape", which explained the basic situation of the case. Two days later, the "Declaration" successively published "Abductor Yang Yuelou Sent to the County"[50] and "Yang Yuelou's Abduction and Theft Taken to Outer Prison",[51] supplementing the information that had not been available before, and informing readers of the trial process and verdict of the case. Through three consecutive days of timely reporting, the Statement delivered this ongoing case to its readers. Readers will be able to learn about the whole process of Yang's case through the newspaper, and respond to it to discuss the facts of the case. The participation of readers made the main writer pay more attention to the timely reporting of this case, so whenever there was a trial of the Yang Yuelou case, retracting the confession and other incidents, the relevant reports of the "Declaration" could be seen within two days.
Since the occurrence of the Yang case in December 1873, after Yang Yuelou's retraction of confession and the official multi-level trial, to the final end of the case with Yang Yuelou returning to his hometown, the "Declaration" published a total of 18 relevant reports, the following table is the trial process of the Yang case, the occurrence time and reporting time of some key events.
It can be observed from the table that except for the report "The Review Case of Yang Yueloufa County", which was slightly delayed due to the inconvenience of news transmission due to the transfer to the Soviet Province for review, the rest of the reports were basically published within two days. "Yang Yuelou Jie Jun", "Yang Yuelou Sent Back", etc., even appeared in the newspaper immediately the next day after the incident. The "Declaration" is a morning newspaper, which needs to be typeset and printed the night before, and the next day it appears in the newspaper that the news related to the Yang case at that time was transmitted to the newspaper by the interviewer on the day of the incident, and after the chief writer edited and typeset, it was put into printing that night. On the day of the incident, the "Declaration" was able to complete the entire process from news visit to editing and printing, which shows the importance that the "Declaration" attaches to the timeliness of news in the Yang Yuelou case.
The instant news provided by the "Declaration" became a way for readers to quickly understand the progress of Yang's case, and it was probably the only way at that time. Some readers said that the case of Yang Yuelou "is only known through public opinion and your firm's successive listings, and there is no other place to know the details of it",[52] and Buping's father also said that his understanding of the case was all "based on the declaration on the eighth day of the first month". [53] As the only Chinese newspaper in Shanghai at that time,[54] the Declaration became an important and even the only channel for readers to learn about the relevant information of the case, laying the foundation for readers' subsequent discussions.
At the same time, the news reports provided by the "Declaration" may also be one of the sources of sources for other newspapers. The Shanghai English-language newspaper Zilinxi Bao did not pay as much attention to this case as the "Declaration", and reported on the occurrence and trial process of the case on January 1, 1874, and then reported on the case again on January 16,[55] and mentioned that the article "Guangdong Tongren to the Library" published in the "Declaration" on January 14 and the dispute over the prohibition of women from watching the theater through the Yang case were basically synchronized with the content published in the "Declaration" at this stage, which can be seen in the "Declaration" The news reports and other content published may have influenced other newspapers in the Shanghai area as well.
The "Declaration" assumes the responsibility of "newsprint" and reports on the whole process of the case in a timely and detailed manner, so that readers can clearly understand the whole picture of the case. In addition, the "Declaration" attaches great importance to the timeliness of news, and news reports related to Yang Yuelou's case can basically be completed within two days from the occurrence of facts to the publication of the newspaper. The shortening of the time lag between the occurrence of news and the appearance of the news makes the news written by the "Declaration" infinitely close to the "present". Some scholars have pointed out that instant news can make readers feel a "sense of the present", which quickly communicates the events that are happening to the readers, so that they can feel them at the moment of the events, so that the readers think that they are involved in the events and can immediately participate in the discussion. [56] In the case of Yang Yuelou, the timely report on the Yang case in the Declaration gives readers a sense of "presentness", making readers feel that they are "personally experiencing" the entire process of the case from its occurrence to development, and are therefore willing to participate in the discussion of the incident. In addition, readers with different positions read the same text at the same time, capture the same information, and the reading of "simultaneity"[57] further engages the reader in the discussion of this ongoing event.
Through the report on the Yang Yuelou case in the "Declaration", it can be seen that, compared with the value stance and writing style, in terms of news timeliness, the "Declaration" was greatly influenced by the concept of modern newspapers and periodicals, and began to try to report the news in a timely manner in the early days of its establishment. By the time the Yang Yuelou case occurred, because the case occurred in Shanghai, the news transmission was convenient, and the readers' attention to the case made the "Declaration" attach great importance to the immediacy of the report, and most of the news reports were only one or two days apart from the occurrence of the incident to the publication in the newspaper. Through immediacy reporting, "Declaration" conveys this ongoing event to readers, creating a "sense of presentness", making readers think that they have "experienced" this event and can participate in the discussion, laying the foundation for readers to discuss this case.
3. Shaping publicity: "newsprint" and public opinion platforms
Through time-sensitive news reports, the "Declaration" presents this "ongoing" case to readers, creating a "sense of present" for readers, and readers begin to participate in the discussion of this case. Through this case and the discussion of readers, during the trial of the Yang Yuelou case, the "Declaration" further shaped its role and positioning by publishing the views of readers from all sides, trying to make the social role of the "Declaration" go beyond the "newsprint" itself that provides timely information.
For example, Xie Jing has focused on the public's discussion of issues such as unmarriage, conviction of crimes, and extortion of confessions by torture through the "public sphere" of the Declaration,[58] and Zhan Jiaru further discussed the interaction between the Declaration and the society and the subtle changes in the forces of all parties after the Declaration's intervention in the speech arena. [59] Through this new public platform, Yang Yuelou's case has received unprecedented attention, but in fact, this is not the first time that the Declaration has openly discussed social cases.
As a new-style newspaper, "Declaration" had a clear understanding of the value and positioning of newspapers and periodicals before the Yang Yuelou case, and was also thinking about how to run a newspaper in Chinese society:
If, because of the disagreement between the two sides of the discussion at the moment, and the desire to make all the public opinion in China be attributed to the opinions of various officials and private opinions, this act will not only go against public reason, but also lose the public opinion of public opinion. [６０]
Aware that one of the functions of the newspaper is to safeguard the public opinion of public opinion, the chief writer of "Declaration" has been actively publishing the opinions of all parties since its inception, and has strived to build a local public opinion platform in China. For example, in the "Zhou Xiaoda Case" and the "Xu Renhui Case" that occurred in February and March 1873 respectively, the "Declaration" also published four argumentative articles on the views of various parties, but due to the limited influence of the cases themselves, they did not cause great repercussions. A few months later, the Yang Yuelou case made the chief writer of "Declaration" see the influence and discussion of the case, and through this case, "Declaration" began to appear as a local public opinion platform in China, and at the same time tried to construct the legitimacy and necessity of the existence of this platform.
The Manifesto provides readers with a precondition for public discussion through immediate news reporting. The "sense of presentness" created by the news makes readers "experience" the whole process of the development of the case, so they are willing to participate in the discussion related to the case. In addition, newspapers and periodicals provide readers with "synchronic" reading, and readers with different positions and opinions learn the same news at the same time, and participate in the discussion of this ongoing event.
On the basis of providing immediate news reports, "Declaration" has built a platform for readers' discussions, expanding from a provider of content ideas to a builder of opinion platforms. [61] The characterization of Yang Yuelou as an "abductor" before the trial of the case provoked strong protests from sympathists[62], who accused the Declaration of "either being bribed by the surname Wei or being entrusted by the Wei Party",[63] which was unfair. The attack of the sympathizers aroused the attention of the "Declaration" to the case, and on December 29, 1873, an article entitled "Zhipingzi Sends a Letter to the Main Library on the Affairs of Yang Yuelou" was published, expressing sympathy for Yang Yuelou's position. Since this period, the attitude of the "Declaration" has changed, and it no longer judges the nature of the case by subjective value standards, but appears in front of readers with a more fair and objective image, which lays the foundation for the subsequent guidance of readers to discuss the case.
Later, the "Declaration" published a number of discussions among readers around the case, such as "The Unequal Father on the Yang Yuelou Affair", "The Fair Old Man's Persuasion and Controversy", "The Book to the Library with the Elderly", etc., and through the connection of the title and the arrangement of the layout, all the discussions were connected, as if these discussions occurred naturally around the Yang Yuelou case. [64] In fact, the Declaration may have led the reader's discussion directly. On more than one occasion, some contributors have pointed out that "Pingzi" and "Fair Old Man" are the same person from the perspective of writing style,[65] and Guangdong Tongren even pointed out that "your museum publishes a book and a treatise on Pingzi and a fair old man, and this must be listed as a work by Mr.",[66] In this regard, the declaration hall did not respond positively. If it is as the contributors say, then the role of the Declaration in this case is not only to provide a neutral public platform for everyone to express their opinions, but also to directly guide the reader's discussion.
The Declaration tried to exert influence in this social and public event, taking a neutral position as much as possible, and "publishing the remarks of all parties related to the case in the newspaper, and the public is right and wrong",[67] and clearly stated that "all parties are treated as the same without partiality",[68] and the main writer's rhetoric also tends to be objective, no longer with obvious emotional colors and value judgments. From a provider of instant messaging to a builder of a neutral discussion platform, it is precisely its exploration of "how to run a newspaper" and the reshaping of its own role.
The Declaration strives to establish the legitimacy of public discussion while providing a space for discussion among readers. When the opposition attacked the "Declaration" for "slandering Yizun with the Yuelou incident", [69] the "Declaration" asked the other party whether he knew the meaning of the word "slander" through the mouth of a fair old man. It is pointed out that "slander can be called slander if there is nothing to do", [70] clearly distinguishing between malicious defamation and public discussion, and denying the crime of defaming officials. On this basis, the fair old man also said: "There is no strict prohibition on discussing state affairs, and the county decree is closed",[71]"To talk about the streets, there is still a prohibition on the law, and this case is not known to be made by any dynasty, and this prohibition is not known to be issued by what canon",[72] directly establishing the legality of the public discussion of Yang Yuelou's case from the level of law. In addition, the "Declaration" uses the discussion of the case by Westerners to highlight the necessity of establishing a public discussion platform. In the published "Continuation of the Fair Old Man's Persuasion Controversy", it was written:
There are many foreign gentlemen who come to visit here, and there are also many people who can read Chinese characters and Chinese, that is, those who like to read the declaration, and there are dozens of people every day. Seeing the day of the first news of this matter, the foreign monarchs have laughed at the Chinese people's joy and non-separation, and the Chinese officials are good at using illegal punishments, and now the laws cited by the two treatises of the virtuous father and son will be said to be why China has such unreasonable laws, and the virtuous father and son really want to show off the rhetoric, or want to slander the country, and the rest do not dare to force the interpretation of people. …… China is known as the country of education and culture, and the country of humanity is rising, but once it comes to this, will it not be ridiculed by foreign countries...... Therefore, it is specially for argumentation, and it is also talked about preserving China's system, so as not to make foreign monarchs laugh at the fact that people up and down China are just smeared worms. [７３]
The "Declaration" said through the mouth of a fair old man that public discussion is not slander, and Chinese law does not prohibit public discussion of social news, and it is not allowed to attract ridicule from Westerners. As a result, the Declaration, through foreigners' observation and discussion of this matter, provides another reason for establishing a platform for public discussion – if public discussion in newspapers is banned, foreigners will regard it as an "unreasonable law", which will ultimately tarnish China's reputation. The public discussion of this case in the Declaration is to uphold China's system and "not make foreign gentlemen laugh at the fact that people from all over China are nonsense",[74] directly linking the necessity of a discussion platform to the dignity of Chinese culture.
Coupled with the efforts of the main writer, everyone debated through the platform of the "Declaration" on issues such as the determination of good and cheap marriages, judicial trial procedures, the prohibition of women from watching dramas, and the reputation of Cantonese people. Regarding the readers' controversy over the Yang Yuelou case itself, the "Declaration" has published more than 20 reports, discussing many aspects such as morality, law, prohibiting women from watching theaters, and safeguarding the interests of the Cantonese people. [７６]
As a public discussion platform, the Declaration does not interfere with readers' remarks and rarely expresses their opinions. In addition to discussing the Yang Yuelou case itself, the "Declaration" also provides readers with other issues related to the case, such as the fact that some officials and gentry attributed the guilt of the case to women watching the theater and proposed that women should be prohibited from going out to watch the theater, which sparked discussion at the time, and the "Declaration" published the views of all parties, including the official. On the one hand, the Manifesto published official notices,[77] but also articles on other points of view, such as the article "On the Prohibition of Women from Watching Theatre" on the front page of January 6, 1874, arguing that women should not "choke on food" because of the many benefits of watching theatre. [78] Most of the readers' discussions around related issues are placed on the front page, and sometimes even occupy the entire page, which shows that the Declaration attaches great importance to its role as a public platform.
The controversy and discussion of the Yang Yuelou case and related issues at the time made the "Declaration" somewhat similar to the modern newspapers and periodicals examined by Habermas, and had some rudiments of the "public domain", and the Yang Yuelou case became a "topic of discussion in the streets". [79] Although it was difficult for Chinese society in the late Qing Dynasty to truly nurture the soil of what Western scholars called the "public sphere", the Declaration did provide a legal and centralized platform for the publication of various opinions at that time, and constituted a space for public opinion in China.
The importance attached to the public platform in the Declaration was not only the result of its continuous exploration in combination with specific social events, but also inevitably influenced by foreign newspapers at that time. At the beginning of its publication, the "Declaration" stated that "the style of Tang character journalism in Hong Kong is very good, and the Declaration" is now set up in imitation of its meaning,[80] and in terms of content, it also often translates and reprints the English newspapers in Shanghai during the same period, and the concepts of modern newspapers and periodicals such as "fourth level" and "public opinion" are bound to have a certain influence on the "Declaration".
Although the Declaration asserted its role as a public platform, it was not widely accepted at the time. As far as the reactions of various parties are concerned, the people of the time did not fully approve of this public platform. The sympathizers and the heavy punishment faction both spoke out against the "Declaration", and the sympathists accused the "Declaration" of "either saying that the embassy was bribed by the surname Wei, or that the pavilion was entrusted by the Wei party"; [81] The Cantonese among the heavy punishment faction were dissatisfied with the title of "Cantonese" and demanded that "the word Cantonese be changed to Wei Dang",[82] the "Declaration" issued an apology for this,[83] which caused dissatisfaction among the Xiangshan people,[84] and the chief writer of the "Declaration" had to issue an article to comfort the Xiangshan people, and the contradictions between all parties were about to erupt.
In fact, the Declarations received far more attacks at the time. According to the report of the Zilinxi Daily, the Cantonese were very dissatisfied with the accusations imposed on them, and twice threatened the government that if the authorities did not take action, they would burn down the office and annihilate all concerned. [85] In this case, the "Declaration" stated that "you are hereby invited to discuss the two matters of Yang Yuelou and the people of Xiangshan, so as not to annoy the outsiders and provoke the Cantonese people",[86] and since then, the "Declaration" has not published a long argument on the case by both parties except for reporting the facts. In an article entitled "The Matter of Shanghai Daily", the chief writer of the "Declaration" stated that "the reason why the museum has specially opened the official complaint is because of the Yang Yuelou case" is that the official not only "set up another official newspaper office" (i.e., the "Report"[87]) to contend with the "Declaration", but also "issued a notice slandering the museum for accepting bribes and other words, in an attempt to damage the name of the museum". [88] It can be seen that although the Declaration provides a public platform for discussion by all parties, it is difficult for everyone to recognize it. The attacks of the contemporaries and the response of the "Declaration" also show that it is difficult for a newspaper to exist independently according to its own will, and it is more or less influenced by society itself.
To sum up, in the case of Yang Yuelou, the "Declaration" provided an immediate news report, created a "sense of present" for readers, and prompted readers to participate in the discussion of the ongoing Yang Yuelou case. On this basis, the "Declaration" strives to provide readers with a public platform for public opinion, where everyone debates and expresses their opinions, and all opinions have a legal and centralized publication platform, which may be regarded as the prototype of the "public domain". In the face of the changes in this stage of the "declaration", "Zilinxi Bao" said, "We are very pleased to see that finally a Chinese newspaper has begun to have an impact in China." [89] From providing "newsprint" for instant news to providing a public opinion platform for discussion among people from all walks of life, and trying to construct the legitimacy and necessity of the existence of this public opinion platform, it is not only the self-shaping and self-improvement of the journal in the early days of its establishment, but also its exploration of its own social role in combination with specific social and public events.
IV. Conclusion
The report on the Yang Yuelou case not only reflects the continuation of traditional Chinese culture in the field of newspapers and periodicals, but also reflects the professional exploration of modern newspapers and periodicals influenced by the Western concept of running newspapers. In the early days of its establishment, the journal was greatly influenced by traditional Chinese culture in terms of value judgment and language and style, but at the same time, it was also influenced by Western ideas and newspaper running concepts, and some elements of "modern newspapers and periodicals" were bred in the soil of traditional Chinese society and culture—striving to achieve immediate news reporting in the Yang Yuelou case, and trying to shape itself as a public platform for readers to discuss.
Although the Declaration provided a public platform for discussion among people from all walks of life, it was difficult for everyone to recognize, and was even attacked by many people, which reflected one of the multiple attitudes of traditional Chinese society towards the new newspaper media at that time—exclusion and confrontation. As a modern newspaper, the "Declaration" cannot exist independently, and is more or less influenced by the society itself, and how to adapt the "Declaration" to Chinese society and how to be accepted by people from all walks of life is a problem that it had to face in the early days of its establishment.
If it is said that the "Declaration" as a "newsprint" "chronicles current affairs",[90] and it is its duty to provide instant news, then by observing the discussion of the case by readers in the Yang Yuelou case with the help of the "Declaration", it can be found that the positioning of the "Declaration" on itself can be summarized by more than just providing information. With the help of the Yang Yuelou case, on the basis of providing readers with instant news, "Declaration" guides readers to participate in the discussion of the case, shapes itself as an objective and neutral public platform, and strives to construct the legitimacy and necessity of this public platform.
exegesis
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[1] For example, Jiang Jianguo specifically studied the operation and distribution of the "Declaration" before the First Sino-Japanese War, and pointed out that the reading of newspapers and periodicals has greatly changed people's concept of time and space. For details, see Jiang Jianguo, "The Issuance and Readers' Reading of the 'Declaration' Before the First Wu Dynasty", Dongyue Review, No. 3, 2016.
[2] Fang Yingjiu, "The Rise and Fall of Literature and Journalism: A Study of Literati in the Early Period", Ph.D. dissertation, Peking University, 2002; Shao Zhixue, The Origin and Turning Point of Modern Chinese Newspaper and Periodical Thought, Hangzhou: Zhejiang University Press, 2011.
[３]梅嘉乐（Barbara Mittler）通过分析《申报》前40年的探索，阐述新式报纸作为一种移植到中国的外来媒介，实现“中国化”并被中国社会所接受的过程，详见Barbara Mittler, A News paper for China? Power, Identity, and Change in Shanghai’s News Media, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2004.
[4] Wang Runze, "Official and Non-governmental: The First Struggle of Late Qing Newspaper and Public Opinion", Social Science Front, No. 3, 2017; Wang Runze and Zhao Meng, "Public Opinion Supervision or Interference in the Judiciary: A Study on the Reporting of Early Judicial Cases in the 'Declaration'", News Spring and Autumn, No. 2, 2019.
[5] Xie Jing, "The Sprout of the "Public Sphere" in Modern China: A Case Study of the Report and Discussion of the Yang Yuelou Case in the 'Declaration'", Tsinghua Rule of Law Discussion and Balance, No. 1, 2014; Zhan Jiaru, "The Beginning of the Newspaper Speech Field: The 'Declaration' in the Yang Yuelou Case in the Late Qing Dynasty", Journal of Journalism and Communication Research, No. 7, 2023.
[6] Huang Xiexun, "Rectification of the Aftermath of the Newspaper", Declaration, August 24, 1898, 1st edition.
[7] Li Changli, "The Changes in Social Ethics in the Late Qing Dynasty from the "Yang Yuelou Case"", Modern History Research, No. 1, 2001.
[8] According to a December 24 report in the Declaration, "Chen Gong immediately signed a mission on the third day of the Lunar New Year to arrest him...... The day before yesterday was so long that the sentence was ignored, and yesterday it was tried", it can be inferred that the case occurred on December 22, 1873, but the first trial was held the next day, December 23. See "Abductor Yang Yuelou Sent to the County," Declaration, December 24, 1873, 2nd edition.
[9] "Yang Yuelou's Abduction and Escape", Declaration, December 23, 1873, 2nd edition.
[10] Fang Yingjiu, "The Growth and Decline of Literature and Journalism: A Study of Literati in the Early 'Declaration'", p. 7.
[11] In the early days of the "Declaration" library, there was only the chief writing room and the accounting department, "the general thing is called the chief writer, and the general writer and editor are called the chief writer", see Xu Zaiping and Xu Ruifang, "Historical Materials of the Declaration in the Forty Years of the Late Qing Dynasty", Beijing: Xinhua Publishing House, 1988, p. 23.
[12] Ge Gongzhen, "History of Chinese Newspapers", Beijing: Life, Reading, and New Knowledge, 2011, p. 73.
[13] Shao Zhize, "The First Chief Writer of 'Declaration' Jiang Zhixiang Examines the Strategy", Journal of Journalism and Communication Research, No. 5, 2008.
[14] Most scholars believe that Jiang Zhixiang left the "Declaration" hall in 1884 after passing the Jinshi examination, but Shao Zhixue pointed out that Jiang Zhixiang had left the "Declaration" around 1875, and by the end of 1875 at the latest, Qian Xinbo had succeeded Jiang Zhixiang as the chief writer. For details, see Shao Zhixue, "The First Chief Writer of 'Declaration' Jiang Zhixiang Study", Journalism and Communication Research, No. 5, 2008.
[15] Lei Jin, "The Past Situation of the Declaration Hall", The Last Fifty Years, Shanghai: The Declaration Hall, 1923.
[16] Zunwen Pavilion Master, "The Edict of the Emperor and the Doctor of the Imperial Court and the Title of Zhili Prefecture Zhizhou Yonghubei Jibu County Wu Jun Lamentation", Declaration, July 4, 1878, 1st edition.
[17] "Continuation of the Bamboo Branches of Hubei", Declaration, May 18, 1872, 4th edition.
[18] "Yang Yuelou's Abduction and Escape", Declaration, December 23, 1873, 2nd edition.
[19] "Abduction Yang Yuelou Sent to the County", Declaration, December 24, 1873, 2nd edition.
[20] "Abduction Yang Yuelou Sent to the County", Declaration, December 24, 1873, 2nd edition.
[21] Wang Runze, "Official and Non-Official: The First Struggle of Newspaper and Public Opinion in the Late Qing Dynasty", Social Science Front, No. 3, 2017.
[22] The Yang Yuelou case was not an isolated case, and the early "Declaration" had a large number of inflammatory and confusing headlines, such as "Temple Monk Obscenity Report" and "Punishment of Sister-in-law".
[23] Zhao Chunning, "The Changes in the Social Status of Artists in the Late Qing Dynasty from the Perspective of Yang Yuelou's "Abduction Case"", Art Garden, No. 3, 2014.
[24] According to Li Changli's research, in Shanghai at that time, the annual income of a famous person like Yang Yuelou would reach more than 1,000 taels, and the annual income of a tutor at that time was about 100 taels, and the income of ordinary literati such as the chief writer of "Declaration" in the Westerner cultural publishing industry was about 15 taels per month. See Li Changli, "The Changes in Social Ethics in the Late Qing Dynasty from the "Yang Yuelou Case"", Modern History Research, No. 1, 2001.
[25] "Abduction Yang Yuelou Sent to the County", Declaration, December 24, 1873, 2nd edition.
[26] "Questions and Answers between China and the West," Declaration, 1st edition, January 5, 1874.
[２７] “Culture and Life”, The North-China Daily News (1864-1951), 1874.1.1.
[２８] “Culture and Life”, The North-China Daily News (1864-1951), 1874.1.1.
[29] "Rectification of the Aftermath of the Newspaper," Declaration, August 24, 1898, 1st edition.
[30] Binzhi, "The Legend of the Declaration", Newsletter of the Declaration, Vol. 1, No. 2, May 1947, p. 19.
[31] "Yang Yuelou's Abduction and Escape", Declaration, December 23, 1873, 2nd edition.
[32] "Yang Yuelou's Abduction and Escape", Declaration, December 23, 1873, 2nd edition.
[33] "Abduction Yang Yuelou Sent to the County," Declaration, December 24, 1873, 2nd edition.
[34] "On the Prohibition of Women from Watching Theatres," Declaration, January 6, 1874, 1st edition.
[35] "Questions and Answers between China and the West," Declaration, 1st edition, January 5, 1874.
[36] "Abduction Yang Yuelou Sent to the County", Declaration, December 24, 1873, 2nd edition.
[37] "Records of Yang Yuelou", Declaration, December 30, 1873, 1st edition.
[３８] Barbara Mittler, A Newspaper for China? Power, Identity, and Change in Shanghai’s News Media, p.43.
[39] In the article "Yang Yuelou's Abduction and Acceptance of Foreign Prisons", "Wei Abao" was mistakenly published as "Abao", as detailed in the second edition of the "Declaration", December 25, 1873.
[40] Yao Gonghe, "A Brief History of Shanghai Newspapers", Oriental Magazine, Vol. 14, Nos. 6 and 7, 1917.
[41] Ge Gongzhen, History of Chinese Newspapers, p. 11.
[42] Jun Mo, "The Arrangement and Evolution of the Early Newspaper", Bulletin of the Declaration, Vol. 1, No. 10, 1947, p. 13.
[43] "The Origin of Shenjiang Xinbao", Declaration, May 6, 1872, p. 1.
[44] Jun Mo, "The Arrangement and Evolution of the Early Newspaper", Newsletter of the Declaration, Vol. 1, No. 10, 1947, p. 13.
[45] "Fujiang Tan Buddha", Declaration, 2nd edition, May 25, 1872.
[46] For example, "Chronicle of the Recovery of Hezhou by the Officers and Troops", "Declaration", May 15, 1872, 2nd edition.
[47] For example, "The Laughing Stock of Qing Officials," Declaration, August 8, 1872, 2nd edition.
[48] Jun Mo, "The Arrangement and Evolution of the Early Newspaper", Newsletter in the Declaration, Vol. 1, No. 10, 1947, p. 13.
[49] "Galloping Horses," Declaration, 2nd edition, April 30, 1872.
[50] "Abduction Yang Yuelou Sent to the County," Declaration, December 24, 1873, 2nd edition.
[51] "Yang Yuelou's Abduction and Acceptance of Foreign Prisons," Declaration, December 25, 1873, 2nd edition.
[52] "Zhipingzi to the Main Pavilion on Yang Yuelou's Affairs", Declaration, December 29, 1873, 1st edition.
[53] "The Affair of Yang Yuelou on the Affair of the Unequal Father", Declaration, January 7, 1874, 1st edition.
[54] The Shanghai Xinbao, a Chinese newspaper founded in 1861, had ceased publication by this time.
[５５] “News”, The North-China Daily News (1864-1951), 1874.1.16.
[56] Pan Guangzhe, "The History of Western Studies Reading in the Late Qing Dynasty: 1833-1898", Nanjing: Phoenix Publishing House, 2019, p. 233.
[57] Anderson pointed out the important role of "simultaneity" in the formation of imaginary communities, see Benedict Anderson, "Imaginary Communities: The Origin and Spread of Nationalism", trans. Wu Rongren, Shanghai: Shanghai Century Publishing House, 2005, pp. 22-23.
[58] Xie Jing, "The Sprout of the "Public Sphere" in Modern China: A Case Study of the Report on Yang Yuelou's Case in the Declaration", Tsinghua Rule of Law Discussion and Balance, No. 1, 2014.
[59] Zhan Jiaru, "The Beginning of the Newspaper Speech Field: The 'Declaration' in the Yang Yuelou Case in the Late Qing Dynasty", Journal of Journalism and Communication Research, No. 7, 2023.
[60] "The Matter of Shanghai Daily," Declaration, May 12, 1874, p. 1.
[61] Wang Runze, "Official and Non-Official: The First Struggle of Late Qing Newspaper and Public Opinion", Social Science Front, No. 3, 2017.
[62] In related studies, the discussants are generally divided into two factions: one is the "heavy punishment faction" that advocates severe punishment for Yang Yuelou and Wei Abao, and the other is the "sympathetic faction" that expresses sympathy for Yang Yuelou and Wei Abao.
[63] "The Library's Restoration of Guangdong Homo Book," Declaration, January 16, 1874, 1st edition.
[64] Zhan Jiaru, "The Beginning of the Newspaper Speech Field: The 'Declaration' in the Yang Yuelou Case in the Late Qing Dynasty", Journal of Journalism and Communication Research, No. 7, 2023.
[65] "A closer look at the pen and ink of the book of the fair old man", see "Persuading the Fair Son to Rest on the Matter", "Declaration", January 13, 1874, 2nd edition.
[66] "Cantonese Tongren to the Library", Declaration, January 14, 1874, 1st edition.
[67] "The Case of Yang Yuelou in which Wei Wang's Death Remains," Declaration, January 16, 1874, 2nd edition.
[68] "The Treatise on the Encouragement of the Xiangshan People by the Main Museum," Declaration, January 21, 1874, 1st edition.
[69] "The Affair of Yang Yuelou by the Unequal Father," Declaration, January 7, 1874, 1st edition.
[70] "The Argument for the Advice of the Righteous Old Man," Declaration, January 9, 1874, p. 1.
[71] "The Argument for the Advice of the Fair Elders," Declaration, January 9, 1874, 1st edition.
[72] "Continuation of the Argument for the Persuasion of the Righteous Elders," Declaration, January 10, 1874, 1st edition.
[73] "Continuation of the Argument for the Advice of the Fair Old Man," Declaration, January 10, 1874, 1st edition.
[74] "Continuation of the Argument for the Persuasion of the Fair Old Man," Declaration, January 10, 1874, 1st edition.
[75] "Zhipingzi to the Library on Yang Yuelou's Affairs", Declaration, December 29, 1873, 1st edition.
[76] Zhan Jiaru, "The Beginning of the Newspaper Speech Field: The 'Declaration' in the Yang Yuelou Case in the Late Qing Dynasty", Journal of Journalism and Communication Research, No. 7, 2023.
[77] "Notice of the Strict Prohibition of Women from Entering the Theater According to the Yi Zun", Declaration, January 7, 1874, p. 2.
[78] "On the Prohibition of Women from Watching Theatre," Declaration, January 6, 1874, 1st edition.
[７９] Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, trans. Cao Weidong et al., Shanghai: Xuelin Publishing House, 1991, p. 70.
[80] "Confession of the Main Museum," Declaration, April 30, 1872, 1st edition.
[81] "The Restoration of Guangdong Homo Books," Declaration, January 16, 1874, 1st edition.
[82] "Canton Tongren to the Library," Declaration, January 14, 1874, 1st edition.
[83] "The Restoration of Guangdong Homo Books", Declaration, January 16, 1874, 1st edition.
[84] "Letter from Xiangshan Rongyang Fu to the Library", Declaration, January 17, 1874, 2nd edition.
[８５] “News”, The North-China Daily News (1864-1951), 1874.1.23.
[86] "The Treatise on the Persuasion of the Xiangshan People by the Library," Declaration, January 21, 1874, 1st edition.
[87] For details, see Ma Guangren, History of Shanghai Journalism, Shanghai: Fudan University Press, 1996, pp. 76-77.
[88] "The Matter of Shanghai Daily," Declaration, May 12, 1874, p. 1.
[８９] “News”, The North-China Daily News (1864-1951), 1874.1.23.
[90] "Confession of the Main Building," Declaration, April 30, 1872, 1st edition.
The above article was originally published in Academic Research, Issue 4, 2024, and does not represent the position of Academic Research. The article has been cut down for reasons of length and may not be reproduced without authorization.
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