Summary:
This article examines the phenomenological thinking of two 20th-century philosophical giants, Martin Heidegger and Ludwig Wittgenstein, with a particular focus on how they advocated a return to philosophy and a deeper understanding of the "living world". Through his ontological construction, especially the concept of "Dasein" and the analysis of temporality, Heidegger emphasizes the direct experience of being and truth; Wittgenstein, on the other hand, used the theory of "language games" to reveal the social and practical nature of language, emphasizing that the solution of philosophical problems needs to be carried out in specific situations. By comparing their critique of traditional rationalism, the innovation of language philosophy in the living world, and the in-depth exploration of aesthetics and ethics, this paper reveals their profound contributions to modern philosophy and cultural criticism.
I. Introduction
Phenomenology, as a philosophical method and movement of thought, originated in the early 20th century and was pioneered by the German philosopher Husserl. At its core, it is the "return to the thing itself" (zu den Sachen selbst), which emphasizes direct experience and intuitive understanding, and strives to get rid of all presuppositions and prejudices and go straight to the pure essence of things. Phenomenology is not simply the accumulation of knowledge or the construction of theories, but a philosophical attitude and research path that requires us to suspend (epoché) all prior knowledge about the external world and focus on the direct presentation of phenomena, thus revealing their inner structure and meaning.
This approach poses a fundamental challenge to traditional philosophy, especially rationalist philosophy. Rationalism tends to construct knowledge systems through abstract concepts and logical reasoning, while phenomenology advocates understanding the world through direct experience and description, refusing to reduce reality to quantifiable objects or theoretical constructs. It advocates a primitive intuition and tries to restore the true relationship between man and the world before it is separated by the conceptual framework, and this position has had a profound impact on later philosophy, humanities, and even the entire intellectual community.
2. Heidegger's Phenomenology: The Quest for Poetic Life
A. Being and Time: The Construction of a Foundational Ontology
Heidegger constructs a new kind of fundamental ontology in Being and Time, centered on the analysis of Dasein. Dasein does not simply refer to human existence, but rather a specific mode of being, self-aware and reflective about its existence. Heidegger emphasizes that Dasein is always in the world, and that its mode of existence is "being in the world" (In-der-Welt-sein), that is, Dasein is inextricably intertwined with the world around him. Dasein's core feature is its "Sorge", an existential concern that encompasses concerns about self, others, things, and the future, reflecting the richness and complexity of Dasein's existential structure.
Temporality (Zeitlichkeit) is the key to understanding the nature of Dasein's existence. Heidegger breaks with the traditional notion of time as an external flow of the subject, and proposes that time is an intrinsic structural condition of Dasein's existence. Temporality is not only the passage of physical time, but also the temporal structure of Dasein's understanding of his own existence, the planning of future possibilities (Entwurf) and the retrospective past (Geworfenheit). This temporality allows Dasein to synthesize the past and the future in the "now" (Jetztzeit), giving meaning and direction to his existence.
B. Echoes of Ancient Greek Thought: The Revival of Poetic Wisdom
Heidegger was heavily influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, especially Heraclitus and Parmenides. Heraclitus's concept of "Panta Rhei" prompted Heidegger to think about the dynamic change and temporality of being; Parmenides' reflections on Being, especially his proposition that "the Being exists, the non-Being does not exist", inspired Heidegger's study of Being itself. Drawing inspiration from ancient Greek philosophy, Heidegger revalued the importance of poetic language as a unique way of revealing the truth of existence.
In Heidegger's view, "poetry and thought" are unified, and poetry is not a simple literary creation, but a revelation of the truth of existence. The truth of a work of art as a manifestation of existence lies not in the work itself, but in the world it opens up and the possibility of existence. Therefore, art is not only the expression of beauty, but also an important path to the understanding of existence, which embodies the supplement and deepening of philosophy by poetic wisdom.
C. The philosophizing of the lifeworld: non-objectivity in the everyday
Heidegger emphasizes the philosophization of the lifeworld, that is, the focus of philosophy from abstract theory to concrete life practice. He criticized the tendency of traditional philosophy to objectify the world, arguing that "cosmopolitanity" (Weltlichkeit) is part of Dasein's existence, rather than an objective entity external to the subject. Cosmopolitanity refers to the totality of Dasein's interaction with its surroundings and the composition of meaning, which imbues everyday experience with a wealth of meaning and possibilities.
"Non-objectified existential experience" means moving beyond the cognitive model of treating the living world as a static object to focusing on the actual participation and experience of people in the world. Heidegger argues that true understanding of being comes from direct life experience, not from conceptual analysis. This experience is non-objectified, because it does not divide the world into independent objects for static analysis, but emphasizes the dynamic participation of people in the world and the understanding of the intrinsic relationship between the world and the self. Thus, Heidegger's phenomenology is not only a theoretical inquiry, but also a philosophy of lifestyle, leading us to engage in the living world in a more authentic and direct way.
3. Wittgenstein's Theory of Language Games and Life Forms
A. Shifts in early and late thought
Wittgenstein's philosophical thought underwent a major transformation from the Treatise on Logical Philosophy to the Philosophical Investigations. In the Treatise on the Philosophy of Logic, he argues that the logical structure of the world can be fully corresponded to by the logical image of language, emphasizes the logical relationship between language and reality, and believes that the task of philosophy is to clarify ideas and define the boundaries of meaning through logical analysis. However, in Philosophical Investigations, Wittgenstein abandoned this position of logical atomism in favor of emphasizing the diversity of language and the complexity of everyday use, arguing that the meaning of language lies in its application in social practice, rather than in its independent entity of use.
B. Theory of Language Games: The Social and Practical Aspects of Language
"Language games" is a central concept in Wittgenstein's late philosophy, and it is used to describe the flexible and varied use of language in specific situations. Language games emphasize the social and practical nature of language, pointing out that the meaning of language is not fixed and unchanging, but is constantly shaped and understood in specific social interactions and life practices. This means that understanding the meaning of a word requires an understanding of its role and function in a particular language game, including how it relates to other linguistic expressions, how it is used in a particular context, etc.
This idea is further reinforced by the concept of "Lebensform", which states that language games are rooted in a broader cultural and social practice, i.e., life forms. Forms of life encompass shared habits, beliefs, practices, and linguistic games that together form the framework for a community's understanding. Therefore, language rules are not abstract rules that are divorced from real life, but are deeply embedded in specific forms of life and closely related to people's practical activities.
C. The dissolution of philosophical problems and the return of the life-world
An important goal of Wittgenstein's later philosophy was to dispel many of the perfugations in traditional philosophy, which he believed often stemmed from misunderstandings of language, especially the over-theorizing and abstracting of the way language was used. He argues that "the way we look at the problem" is the problem, and argues that philosophical problems can be solved by changing the way they are formulated, that is, by changing our understanding of the relationship between language and reality.
"Everyday language analysis" is Wittgenstein's method of putting this idea into practice, and it requires us to carefully examine the practical use of language in everyday life, removing unnecessary abstraction and mystification from philosophical discussions. Through a detailed examination of everyday language, Wittgenstein reveals that many philosophical dilemmas actually stem from the misuse or over-generalization of language, and that many seemingly esoteric questions disintegrate on their own once they are put back into the context in which they are actually used.
In short, Wittgenstein's theory of language games and forms of life has pushed philosophy out of the fog of theory and back to the colorful world of life by emphasizing the social and practical aspects of language, as well as re-examining philosophical issues. This is not only a philosophical and methodological innovation, but also a fundamental reshaping of the way human beings understand themselves and the world.
4. Comparison of philosophies of language: from expression to comprehension
A. Heidegger's View of Language: Speech and Silence
Heidegger's philosophy of language profoundly explores the revealing function of speech, that is, language is not only a communication tool, but also an important way to reveal the truth of existence. In his view, true speech is not simply to convey information, but to make the existence of the object reveal its essence in the discourse, and it is an activity that allows the being to speak itself. Heidegger emphasizes that the potential of speech lies in its revealing (Erschlossenheit), which opens up the realm of being and makes hidden meanings clear. In addition, he proposed the concept of "silence" (Schweigen), arguing that true speech contains the power of silence, and silence is not silence, but the space that allows existence to fully unfold, which is a necessary supplement to speech.
Heidegger's discussion of the occurrence of truth and the nature of language proposes the concept of "aletheia", which means that truth is not a static possession of knowledge, but a dynamic process, a process in which being is constantly revealed from the obscured state. Language plays a key role in this process, both as a form in which truth takes place and as a medium through which human beings understand existence. Therefore, the essence of language lies in its ability to reveal existence and let the light of existence shine.
B. Wittgenstein's Game of Language: The Unity of Form and Content
Wittgenstein's theory of language games expounds the function and nature of language from another perspective, emphasizing the diversity and situationality of language behavior. In his view, language games are the use of language in specific situations, and each game has its own specific rules, which are closely related to the form of life, reflecting the social and practical nature of language use. Language is no longer seen as a tool for expressing fixed meanings independent of the context, but as a series of activities that are in harmony with the intentions, actions, and environment of the user.
Wittgenstein also proposed the concept of the cycle of expression, comprehension and practice, arguing that the meaning of language is generated in use and established and maintained through repeated practices of expression and understanding. This cycle emphasizes the interactivity in the process of language learning and use, and shows that language mastery is not only the accumulation of theoretical knowledge, but also the result of participation in social life, practice and communication.
C. Commonalities and differences: linguistic analysis from a phenomenological perspective
Although Heidegger and Wittgenstein have different starting points and emphases in their philosophies of language, they both make profound transcendences of traditional philosophies of language. Neither is content to treat language as a simple system of symbols, but rather emphasizes the intrinsic relationship between language and existence, practice, and society, which indicates that the depth and breadth of their understanding of language goes far beyond traditional logical positivism or linguistic analytic philosophy.
In transcending the traditional philosophy of language, both demonstrate the central role of language in the living world. Heidegger focuses on the revealing function of language, arguing that language is the key to being understood; Wittgenstein used the theory of language games to show how language constructs meaning in concrete social practices. The difference between the two is mainly reflected in the interpretation of the nature of language: Heidegger pays more attention to the metaphysical dimension of language, emphasizing the intrinsic connection between language and being; Wittgenstein, on the other hand, focuses on the social practicality of language, emphasizing the specific contextuality and regularity of language activities.
In general, although Heidegger and Wittgenstein have different paths, they both lead philosophy from theoretical abstraction to life practice, show the irreplaceable role of language in the living world, and provide rich ideological resources and multiple perspectives for phenomenological language analysis.
5. The Intersection of Aesthetics and Ethics: An In-depth Exploration of Life Experience
A. Heidegger's Conception of Aesthetics: The Truth of the Work of Art
Heidegger's aesthetic thought goes beyond the traditional aesthetic analysis of the form and content of beauty, and instead focuses on how the work of art reveals the truth of being itself. He regards art as a special kind of existential event, and believes that the work of art is not only an object of sensual pleasure, but also an opener of the state of being. The truth of a work of art lies not in what specific objects or emotions it represents, but in how it opens up a world that allows us to intuitively feel the multiple dimensions of existence. The artwork thus becomes the "happening ground" of the truth of existence, inviting the viewer to enter a world that is revealed and to experience the openness of existence itself.
For Heidegger, aesthetic experience is a direct encounter with being, a primordial way of understanding the world. The work of art makes us perceive the wholeness and richness of the world in a unique way that transcends the trivialities and distractions of everyday life and confronts the fundamental problems of existence. Thus, aesthetic experience becomes a path to the truth of existence, a direct participation and testimony to the open state of existence.
B. Wittgenstein's Ethical Reflections: The Unspeakable Value
Wittgenstein's ethical thought is closely linked to his philosophy of language, and he believes that ethical values and the meaning of life belong to the realm of the "ineffable". In his Treatise on the Philosophy of Logic, he states that "ethics cannot be taught" because ethical facts are not the object of logic or factual statements and cannot be expressed through the logical analysis of language. Ethical values are not knowledge, but are manifested in our lives, in our actions and in the way we live. Wittgenstein emphasized that the dimension of ethics is concerned with the way of life itself, and is the internal orientation of life practice, rather than external norms or principles.
Wittgenstein was concerned with the ethical dimension of the way of life, i.e., how individuals live, choose, and act, rather than with the establishment of universally applicable moral rules. He advocates a reflection on our daily actions to understand the deep values and beliefs that guide our actions, which cannot be directly articulated but are embodied and transmitted through the way we live.
C. The aesthetic and moral foundations of the living world
From the perspectives of Heidegger and Wittgenstein, aesthetic experience and moral behavior are intrinsically linked in the lifeworld. The truth revelation of Heidegger's artwork and Wittgenstein's ineffable ethical value both point to a depth of life practice that goes beyond conventional understanding, that is, to touch the truth and the root of value of being through direct experience and practice.
The intrinsic connection between aesthetic experience and moral behavior is reflected in the fact that both are a kind of deep participation in the living world, and both require individuals to face life with a true attitude. The revelation of truth in a work of art encourages us to open our hearts and minds to perceive the world in a broader and more nuanced way, and this perception is equally applicable to moral judgments, making us more sensitive to the nuances and conflicts of values in the face of ethical dilemmas.
The value experience and realization in life practice, whether aesthetic or ethical, requires us to go beyond purely theoretical thinking and enter life itself. Heidegger's artistic experience makes us aware of the depth of being, while Wittgenstein's ethical reflections prompt us to focus on the inner orientation of our actions. Together, the two reveal the plurality and depth of values in the lifeworld, emphasizing the centrality of direct experience and practice in understanding existence and ethics. This intersection not only enriches our understanding of aesthetics and ethics, but also provides a path for individuals to find meaning and value guidance in the complex and ever-changing modern life.
VI. Conclusion
Heidegger and Wittgenstein's phenomenological thoughts, although they have different starting points, point to a profound shift from the abstract objectification of traditional philosophy to the practice of life. They emphasized that philosophy should focus on the actual life experience of the individual, rather than just stopping at the construction and analysis of theories.
Through his exploration of being and time, as well as his in-depth analysis of works of art, Heidegger reveals the direct connection between being and truth in the living world. Wittgenstein, on the other hand, pointed out the practical nature of language and action in real life through the theory of language games and the concept of life forms, emphasizing that understanding must be based on concrete situations. The combined implication of the two is that philosophy should be a reflection on the practice of life, a direct participation in and experience of the inner logic and value of the living world.
A new way to understand the lifeworld lies in applying phenomenological intuitive methods to all levels of life practice, such as aesthetic experience, ethical decision-making, language communication, etc., which not only enriches our understanding of the lifeworld, but also provides us with a new perspective that goes beyond the scope of traditional philosophy, so that we can find deeper meaning and value in our daily experience.
Author: Lu Xilin
Bibliography:
Heidegger, M. Being and Time. Translated by J. Macquarrie & E. Robinson. New York: Harper & Row.
Wittgenstein, L. Philosophical Investigations. Translated by G.E.M. Anscombe. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
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