Deng Shuping: The formation of the Six Instruments of Zhou Rites as seen in archaeology

Zhenzhitang reprinted from Xuzhou Museum, Proceedings of the International Symposium on Jade Culture in the Han Dynasty (2018, Xuzhou, China), Science Press, October 2019

synopsis

Chinese jade culture has been sprouting since 9,000 years ago, but Chinese jade ritual restrictions have been sprouting since 6,000 years ago and ended at the end of the imperial system in 1911. Due to the difference in ecology, the prehistoric jade culture naturally formed the confrontation between West China and East China, and developed to the Zhou Dynasty from the 11th century BC to the 3rd century BC, forming the difference between the Zhou culture and the Chu culture.

The Zhou people originated from the upper and middle reaches of the Yellow River, and developed the "Guibi system" in the early Zhou period, and Zhang was a jade ritual vessel related to Gui. During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the Chu-style green jade mine in Jingzhou area was discovered and utilized, and a new Chu-style ceremonial jade was constructed. From Chu Jian, it can be seen that many kinds of jade can be worshipped by gods, and Amber and Huang are important burial jades.

Archaeological data show that the upper and middle reaches of the Yellow River have developed the ritual of "Bicong Combination" since prehistoric times. After the end of the Qi family culture, the status of Cong was not seen in the Shang and Zhou ritual systems, but many Qi family culture jade cong were scattered in the tombs of the Shang and Zhou dynasties, and most of them were antique collections of nobles. From the late Spring and Autumn Period to the Warring States Period, a small wave of new craftsmen and coarse jade stones appeared in the middle reaches of the Yellow River. Or it is only a brief revival of the ancient rites that have been silent for more than a thousand years. "Zhou Li" to: Gui, Bi, Zhang, Cong, Amber, and Huang as the "six instruments" to worship the four directions of heaven and earth, which should be a new system constructed by the Confucian scholars during the Warring States Period and the jade ritual system that integrates the three systems. In the early years, a large number of sacrificial jade were unearthed in Lianzhi Village and Sujiakou, which should be the sacrificial relics of Emperor Wu of the Western Han Dynasty after research. If so, the set of jade artifacts produced by the two places in conjunction with the "Six Vessels" of the "Zhou Rites" is likely to be the practice of the Hejian Offering King in the Western Han Dynasty after the "Zhou Rites" were presented to the imperial court.

Keywords: jade ritual system, Zhou rite system, six instruments, Guibi system, Bicong group, Chu-style ritual jade

• The formation of the Neolithic jade ritual system

According to the latest archaeological data, around 7000 BC, the Xiaonanshan culture on the banks of the Ussuri River in Raohe County, Heilongjiang Province, had developed a relatively primitive jade craft, [1] Around 6000 BC, the Xinkailiu culture on the bank of Xingkai Lake in Mishan County (now Mishan City) in Heilongjiang Province and the jade carving technology of Xinglongwa culture in western Liaoning gradually matured. [2] Therefore, China has a history of 9,000 years of jade development.

Because the ancestors recognized the physical characteristics of jade when grinding stones to make tools and weapons, the physical characteristics of jade are tough and durable, beautiful and moist, so in the first 3,000 years of the development history of Chinese jade, the jade made by the ancient ancestors only had simple tools and ornaments, and did not develop the significance of the ritual system.

Over time, with the complexity of society, around 4000 BC, ornaments or tools made of beautiful jade gradually became a symbol of the status of the owner. It began to have the meaning of "Rui weapon" in the jade ritual system. For example, the tomb of the late Majiabang culture in Dongshan Village, Zhangjiagang, Suzhou, Jiangsu Province, unearthed a "Lie Huang Pei" made of flash jade,[3] which was composed of five pieces of jade. [4] After research and analysis, scholars believe that in the late Majiabang culture, jade has the function of revealing the identity and status of the tomb owner. [5] In the early tombs of Yangshao culture in Zhenglonggang Temple in southwest Shaanxi, there is also a phenomenon of expanding the size of the tomb and symbolizing the identity of the tomb owner with burial jade tools and large and fine stone tools. [6] The author believes that this is the germ of China's "jade ritual system".

After another 500 years, to about 3500 B.C., the jade works on the land of China were more diversified, and the phenomenon of using beautiful jade to communicate with people and gods generally appeared, and the jade that helped communicate people and gods in the festival was the "sacrificial vessel" in the jade ritual system. Due to the fact that the ancestors of East China and West China developed different nature worship beliefs under the influence of regional ecological differences and other factors, the styles and functions of "sacrificial vessels" were significantly different.

The ancestors of East China developed the mystical belief of "animal spirit worship" (hereinafter referred to as "animal spirit worship"), and in the archaeological cultural sites such as Hongshan culture, Lingjiatan culture, Songze culture, and Liangzhu culture, there were many human ornaments made of beautiful jade, carved dragons, tigers, birds, people, insects, etc., or the ancestors believed that witches wearing such jade ornaments that combined the essence of beautiful jade and animal spirituality could enhance their mana to communicate with the gods.

The ancestors of Western China developed the primitive thinking of "celestial worship" and "homogeneous sensing", from the Miaodigou culture, the first Qijia culture (Keshengzhuang culture, Caiyuan culture, Changshan lower class culture, Banshan culture)[7] to the Qijia culture, and gradually developed the jade ritual vessels that symbolize heaven and earth—Yuanbi and Fangcong. Not only did they make a large number of these jade objects, which had no practical function, but they also buried them in tombs or sacrificial pits with the same amount of bibi and cong (see section 3 of this article for a detailed discussion).

In other words, the history of Chinese jade is 9,000 years, but the history of Chinese jade ritual is only 6,000 years. From 4000 BC, special

The jade tools and jade ornaments have become a symbol of identity - jade rui; From 3500 B.C., special ornamentation (animals), made

The jade of the type (round square) is used as a medium for channeling - jade sacrificial vessels. Rui and sacrificial vessels are the core of the jade ritual system.

Around 2000 BC, or perhaps the first dynasty in ancient history, Xia, rose to prominence in the Central Plains [8]. From archaeology

It can be seen that at that time, there were many political systems in the Yellow River Basin and the Yangtze River Basin that made and used jade ritual vessels, and today's academic terms are mostly called them

for archaeological culture. In West China, there are Qijia culture, Shiyuan culture, Taosi culture, etc., and in East China, there are Shandong Longshan culture and Hou

Shijiahe culture, etc. At that time, the Erlitou site, located in the middle reaches of the Yellow River, may have been one of the great capitals of the Xia Dynasty [9].

Each of the above-mentioned archaeological cultures has developed its own unique jade ritual vessels [10], and the jade artifacts unearthed in Erlitou, which is located in the center

It has the different styles of East China and West China [11]. At this time, the popularity and diversification of jade ritual vessels coincided with the "Zuo Chuan: Mourning Gong VII

Year" "Yuhui princes in Tu Mountain, the jade silk holder of all countries" record.

"Jade silk" is a joint name for two items, "jade" and "silk". From the "Chinese Chu (Part II)" recorded in the observation of the father and Chu

King Zhao's dialogue on the "essence" used in rituals shows that the ancients believed that "jade" and "silk" were two substances containing "essence" [12].

"Jing" means "essence" and "energy" [13].

In short, since 7000 BC, the hard and cold "jade" has been used by the ancestors as a material for making utensils; Since 4000 B.C., jade has gradually been used as a ritual tool to divide identities and communicate with people and gods; By 2000 B.C., "jade silk" became the land of China

The ancestors generally used to worship the "tokens" of the alliance, which was really a long road to the formation of the "jade silk culture" [14].

The term "three generations" was first seen in the Spring and Autumn Period in the Analects of Wei Linggong, and until the Warring States Period, the word referred to Xia,

Shang and Western Zhou [15], i.e. 2070 to 771 BC, about 1300 BC. After the Qin Dynasty, the meaning of "three dynasties" began to include the Eastern Zhou Dynasty[16], and the lower limit was 221 BC, increasing the total number of years by 550 years.

"The Analects of Politics": "Yin is due to the summer ceremony, and the profits and losses can be known; Zhou is due to Yin Li, and the profit and loss can be known. Say

Ming Confucius understood that although the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties were successively inherited, the roots of their ritual systems were different, and the descendants had some on the basis of the previous generation's ritual system

Changes. In fact, the Xia, Shang, and Zhou were the ancestors of three different ethnic groups, rising from West China, East China, and West China respectively. Shang people

Originating from the Xiaqiyuan culture in southern Hebei, the Zhou people originated in the Weishui Valley of Shaanxi Province [17]. Only the origin of the Xia people is more said, but

Recent archaeological data show that the Xia culture is closely related to the Shiyuan culture in northern Shaanxi [18].

The analysis of the three dynasties from the perspective of jade also clearly shows the alternation, decline and gradual integration of the western and eastern jade ritual systems. The author has

The article is written in detail[19], and for the sake of space, it can only be briefly described here.

The jade ge, yazhang, and multi-hole knives with lattice lines of the Erlitou culture show a close relationship with the Shiyuan culture of West China, but the handle is shaped

However, the ware comes from the Houshijiahe culture in East China, and the East China-style tooth often carved on the side of the jade can be traced back to the Hemudu culture

"The top of the pre-character crown".

In the early and middle Shang Dynasty, there were few types of jade, mainly jade Ge and handle-shaped ware, which should be used as Rui and sacrificial vessels respectively. Late Shang mid-term, out

A small number of animal-themed jade carvings have been found [20]. In the late Shang period, the animal-themed jade carvings [21], in which the jade carvings with the motifs of humans and birds were often set at the lower end for the tenon inserted into the long pole, proving that this was the "jade tip" that summoned the gods during the ceremony [22]; Jade carvings of dragons, tigers and other motifs are often perforated and can be sewn onto the "treasure jade clothes" worn by witches during their practice [23]. If carefully compared, the theme and shape of animal jade carvings in the late Shang period are very similar to those of the late Hongshan culture, but the decorative techniques of the animals carved with fine swirling ornaments are similar to those of the Liangzhu culture. This fully shows that the ancient belief in "material spirit worship" in East China was revived with the growth of the merchants of the Dongyi clan. In addition to the animal-themed jade carving Dasheng,

In the late Shang period, jade bi engraved with concentric circles was also popular, which may be a manifestation of the embryonic stage of the "Seven Heng Diagrams" in the Gaitian cosmology [24].

The Zhou nationality originated in the area of present-day Shaanxi and Gansu, and it can be seen from the geographical relationship that the pre-Zhou culture must have a close relationship with the Qi culture. The Qijia culture (2300-1600 BC)[25] prevailed in the "Bicong Combination" jade ritual system based on "celestial worship" and "homogeneous sensibility", but from the record of King Wu in Shangshu Jinteng[26], Zhou Gong held Yugui in his hand, facing the Yuanbi planted on the altar, and prayed to the spirits of the ancestors of three generations attached to the jade[27], it can be seen that the jade ritual system of the Zhou people was mainly "Bigui Combination", and the ritual of sacrifice and prayer was "Zhibi Binggui". It can be seen that in the middle of the second millennium BC, the "Bicong combination" jade ritual system of the Qi family culture, which was originally prevalent in the upper and middle reaches of the Yellow River, was gradually replaced by the "jade ritual system" of the Bigui group of the Zhou people.

Bronze inscriptions and pre-Qin documents all record the implementation of the "Ming Gui system" in the Western Zhou Dynasty. For example, in the "Book of Songs, Daya, Songgao", King Xuan of Zhou sent his uncle Shenbo to defend the southern territory: "Sir Jiegui, to be Erbao, to approach the king's uncle, the southern soil is to protect." When the feudal princes return to the court, they need to hold their fate to see the Son of Heaven, such as "The Book of Songs, Daya, Han Yi": "Han Hou enters the Hajj, and enters the king with his Jiegui." ”

So what kind of jade is the "gui" in literature and gold inscriptions? In 1977, the author argued that "kyu" can be divided into "flat head kyu" and "sharp head kyu". The jade axes and shovels used by the prehistoric ancestors are the ritual vessels used in the festival to represent personal status, which can be called "Pingshou Gui" [28] (Figure 1). For a long time, such jade was mistaken for a "medicine shovel" in a Chinese medicine store, until Wu Dashi researched it and corrected its name at the end of the Qing Dynasty [29].

Jianshou Gui was developed from Yuge. The jade Ge excavated from the Erlitou site, which may belong to the Xia Dynasty, is no longer the embryonic work of "Ge", and in the information seen so far, the Moyu Ge collected from the Shenmu Shiyuan may be more primitive [30]. During the Shang Dynasty, jade axes and tools (Pingshougui) and Yuge (Jianshougui) coexisted roughly together, and their number and placement in tombs were similar. During the Zhou Dynasty, Yuge (Jianshou Gui) replaced Pingshou Gui as the main ceremonial Yugui[31], and the style was gradually fixed, developing into a rectangular piece with a triangular tip at one end.

From the late Shang period to the Warring States period of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, "Ge" had different developments due to the difference in quality and materials (Figure 2): Tong Ge was a practical weapon, so

developed "阑" and "hu" to increase the stability of their binding to long poles; Yuge was used as a status symbol, so the distinction between the middle ridge and the blade line, the body and the handle gradually disappeared, and developed into a rectangular version with a triangular tip at the upper end, that is, the "Yugui" in the ritual system [32]. Therefore, in the Zhou Dynasty ritual system, Yuge is Yugui.

The tombs of the nobles of the Western Zhou Dynasty are often accompanied by some ancient jade from the early years of the Western Zhou Dynasty when the vassal states were divided [33]. Late Western Zhou Dynasty Jin, Yu,

The princely states surnamed Rui and other princes with the surname Ji paid special attention to funeral pomp, and the tomb owners were often lined with antique-grade guibi and bi, such as the group of guibi unearthed from the chest of the tomb owner of Tianma Quwo M8 (Fig. 3) [34].

"The Book of Songs, Daya, Juan" describes the dignified man as "Rugui Ruzhang". "The Book of Songs, Daya, and Pu" praises the king's dignified demeanor with "helping the king, leaving and right Fengzhang, Fengzhang E'e, and fashionable people are appropriate". From the Western Zhou Dynasty Jin Wen, it can be seen that "Zhang" is related to "Gui", but the rank is slightly lower. For example, in the inscriptions of the Panpan and the Songding, it is recorded that "anti-entry into the Sumire"[35], while in the inscriptions of the Songju and Songding, the same ritual is "anti-entry into the Jinzhang" [36]. Scholars have suggested that the Zhangs of the Western Zhou Dynasty may have been flattened and elongated jade plates [37], and that a jade ritual vessel called "Zhang" may have been unearthed from the tombs of the Rui Kingdom in the early Spring and Autumn Period (Fig. 4) [38].

In addition to Gui, Bi and Zhang, the group of jade pendants and handle-shaped vessels are also important ritual vessels from the Western Zhou Dynasty to the early Spring and Autumn Period.

The Duohuang jade pendant is a necessary status symbol for high-level aristocratic men and women in the Zhou cultural circle. Originally, most of its monoliths came from the scattered pieces of Qijia culture, which were strung together with beads and tubes of various colors and textures, and the scattered pieces had been seen in the early Zhou period. Throughout the Western Zhou Dynasty, the jade pendants of the Duohuang group were a symbol of aristocratic status [39].

The shank-shaped ware was gradually simplified and evolved from the face pattern inlays of the gods of the Later Shijiahe culture [40], and was used in the third dynasty of the Xia and Shang dynasties until the early Spring and Autumn period, when it gradually disappeared with the decline of classical religious thinking [41].

3. "Amber" and "Huang" in the "retro" elements of the Warring States Period

During the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, due to the invasion of the dogs, the Zhou royal family moved eastward and gradually declined, and some ancient cultural factors that had been suppressed for a long time were revived to varying degrees in different appearances.

The Liangzhu culture was a strong culture in prehistoric East China, and jade carvings and Huang-shaped jade artifacts with the meaning of "tiger" and "dragon" were prevalent. This cultural tradition of the cult of the essence was revived in the late Shang period, suppressed in the Western Zhou Dynasty, and in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, it rose strongly in the Chu culture in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River. Subsequently, the state of Chu became the largest vassal state in the Warring States period by annexing Wu, Yue and dozens of surrounding small states, and in its development of the "Chu-style ritual jade" system, "amber" and "huang" are important burial jade.

From the archaeological excavated oracle bone inscriptions, Jin inscriptions[42], Shangshu, Shijing, Zuo Chuan, and other documents that convey the historical facts of the Zhou Dynasty, it can be seen that the "Fang Cong" element in the "celestial worship" of prehistoric Huaxi was not valued by the Shang and Zhou people[43]. Although the ruins of the Shang and Zhou dynasties are common in the jade cong of the Qi family, most of them are antiques hidden by the nobles. It was not until the 5th century BC later, that is, from the late Spring and Autumn Period to the Warring States Period, that in the Sanjin region of the Zhou cultural circle, a small wave of small craftsmen and coarse jade stone cong habits appeared.

In other words, during the Warring States Period, the "Huang" and "Huang" in the south and the "Cong" in the north were all new "retro" elements, which were combined with the "Bi", "Gui" and "Zhang" of the Zhou culture to complete the structure of the "Six Instruments". In the following, the author will discuss this issue in detail.

The biggest change in the Warring States jade ritual system is the high development of "Chu-style ritual jade". In the past, due to the fact that researchers paid little attention to the differences in jade materials, the emergence of "Chu-style green jade" and the development of "Chu-style ceremonial jade" were completely ignored in the academic community.

"Chu-style green jade" is a kind of grass-green sphalamerum metamorphosed from magnesia marble with a delicate texture [44]. It is not known where the mine came from[45], but archaeological data show that it was suddenly used in large quantities by the Chu nobles in the Jingzhou region to make sacrificial and burial jade from the late Spring and Autumn period to the early Warring States period [46] BC, that is, in the 5th century BC. The former has a grain pattern bi[47], and the latter has a grain pattern bi, a grain pattern huang, and animal-shaped jade carvings with a sinuous body, and a large number of burial jade made of "Chu-style green jade" has been unearthed from Wangshan Tomb No. 2 (Figure 5) [48].

If we look at the shape of the artifact, everyone would call the jade on Figure 5-3 a "dragon-shaped pendant", but based on the words "a pair of Huang" and "a pair of tigers" on the bamboo slips with a book of remembrance unearthed from the tomb, the reporter believes that "tiger" is "amber", referring to the jade objects in Figure 5-3[49]. In the late Warring States period, the Chu-style burial of jade was spread to the lower reaches of the Yellow River [50], and the tombs of Zhongshan Kingdom in Pingshan, Hebei Province, unearthed animal-shaped pendants with the same shape but a light surface, and the surface of the vessel was directly written with the words "tiger" or "amber" (Fig. 6) [51]. From this, it can be seen that the "jade amber" in the Chu-style burial jade has a dragon-like winding body. For the sake of ease of communication, the author suggests calling the jade artifacts such as Figure 5-3 made of Chu-style green jade "Amber Dragon" [52].

The excavation report of the Wangshan Chu Tomb clearly states that these jade and amber dragons are often pressed under human bones, and because the jade objects have small perforations, the reporter believes that they "should be a group of jade tied to the clothes of the deceased at the time of burial"[53]. In other words, according to the location of these jade objects, it is clear that they were not connected into a group of so-called "group jade pendants" that could be hung in front of a person's chest and abdomen, but were scattered or placed in small holes so that they would not be displaced during burial, and they were first sewn on the clothes of the dead clothes. This tradition of sewing jade carved animals on clothing can be traced back to the Neolithic Liangzhu culture (c. 3300-2300 BC) [54]. As mentioned in the previous section, a large number of jade-carved animals unearthed from tombs in the late Shang period (c. 1250-1046 BC) may also have been sewn into the "Baoyu clothes" worn by shamans during their practices. The history of jade huang is even longer, and in Neolithic cultures such as Majiabang, Songze, and Beiyinyangying, jade has been a symbol of the identity of the owner [55].

Because the Huang and Amber Dragons made of Chu-style green jade are large in size and made in pairs, and the surface of the vessel often leaves cut marks, and there is no phenomenon of pan Mo wearing for a long time, and it is often symmetrically arranged near the left and right legs of the tomb owner in the tomb, the author suspects that this kind of burial jade specially made for the deceased may have been regarded as a magic weapon for the tomb owner to ride and ascend to heaven at that time.

In the tombs of Chu in the Warring States period, Yuanbi is more common and more numerous than Amber and Huang, and the largest jade bi in the tomb is often placed at the head of the tomb. This ritual developed into the Western Han Dynasty, in addition to the coffin plate at the end of the coffin, it was more common to use a jade box to wrap the deceased's whole body tightly, and only the head of the jade box was sewn with jade, which should be in the hope that the soul of the deceased would enter the heavenly realm through the hole in the bi, which proves that in Chu culture, the bi was a magic weapon for attracting souls and ascending to heaven [56].

In the late Warring States period, the large "amber" and "huang" made of Chu-style green jade gradually disappeared, but the "double-body amber dragon pattern" was developed, that is, three or four "amber dragons" were spread out around the periphery of the valley pattern bi (Figure 7). According to statistics, where the tombs with "double body and head amber dragon pattern" are unearthed, the "amber dragon" is rarely seen again[57], and the author believes that this is the reason why the amber dragon on the periphery of the jade bi replaced the independent amber dragon. In short, in the late Warring States period Chu tombs and tombs of Qi and Lu that accepted this burial custom, a large number of grain patterns were often used to pave the body of the tomb owner with some "double body and amber dragon pattern", which was very spectacular [58].

In addition to being used as a funeral rite, it can be seen from the Baoshan Chu Jian and Geling Chu Jian that "Peiyu" was also often used to worship the gods in the Chu culture, and the more commonly mentioned utensils were Bi, Huan, Huang, and Amber [59].

Fourth, the "cong" in the "retro" elements of the Warring States period

Recently, some scholars have identified the character "Cong" from the known Shang Dynasty oracle bone inscriptions and Zhou Dynasty Jin inscriptions, which resemble "a central square circle, with a symmetrical triangle extending from the top and bottom, left and right", and "jade" can also be added as a symbol. Although no one has refuted this argument, the arguments are weak[60]. In the pre-Qin literature, the "Rites", which may belong to the late Spring and Autumn Period, and the books of the Warring States Period, such as "Zhou Li", "Mozi", and "Lü's Spring and Autumn", also recorded the character "Cong". However, from the archaeological excavation and the analysis of the entire historical data, the square jade tools with middle holes that appeared in the Neolithic Age and were quite popular should be the so-called "Cong" in the pre-Qin documents.

Due to the differences in the natural environment such as altitude, since the Neolithic Age, East China and West China have developed different cultural beliefs. Probably since the Miaodigou culture around 3500 BC, the ancestors of western China developed the cosmology of the round heaven and the earth, and made round and square jade tools with central holes, also known as "bi" and "cong" (Fig. 8), to worship heaven and earth [61].

The author has visited the area around Longshan and knows that Jingning and Huining in Gansu Province, and Longde, Haiyuan, and Guyuan in Ningxia have intensively unearthed various jade artifacts from the pre-Qijia period to the Qijia culture, such as Banshan and Caiyuan[62]. Fig. 9 is an early collection of two pieces by the Swedish scholar Andersen [63], in which the jade bib has a "V" shaped groove perpendicular to the table, indicating that the cutting tool is quite thick and the cutting technique is relatively clumsy.

In 2013, Professor Qin Ling of Peking University excavated an ash pit of the Zhuang culture in Hakka Province at the site of Shuang'an in Qishan, Shaanxi Province, and unearthed a stone cong with an extremely shallow opening, pressing a stone bi with about two-fifths of the remainder of the stone, which is extremely valuable [64]. The Shuang'an data not only proves that in the upper and middle reaches of the Yellow River in prehistory, there was indeed a custom of burying the same amount of bi and cong in the sacrificial pit (often called "ash pit"), but also proves that incomplete fragments can also represent complete vessels used as sacrificial vessels.

The upper reaches of the Yellow River officially entered the Qijia culture stage around 2300 BC. Tomb No. 8 of the seventh phase of Tianshui Shizhao Village, Gansu Province, which belongs to the early stage of this culture, was excavated [65], and the two appear to be made of the same piece of jade (Fig. 10) [66]. The jade bi is large and round, and the two cutting marks that are slightly parallel to the surface of the vessel have been carefully smoothed, one of which is no longer obvious, and the other still leaves a narrow groove that is horizontal with the surface of the jade, indicating that the process at this time is more mature, and the cutting tool is sharper and thinner; The short firing port of the jade cong is slightly higher than that of the Shuang'an stone cong, or the body of the vessel is slightly skewed due to accommodating the jade material, but the four walls are kept straight and square. According to researcher Ye Maolin, a participant in the excavation of Shizhao Village, this period was about 2300 BC [67].

The geographical scope of the Qijia culture gradually expanded in the middle and late periods, covering most of the upper and middle reaches of the Yellow River [68]. So far, a total of 8 sites suspected of being sacrificial pits are known, and only the same number of Bi and Cong are buried. The buried ones include Shatang Heping Village in Longde, Ningxia, Haicheng Shanmen Village in Haiyuan, Ningxia, Tuliang in Northeast Tuliang Village, Baoji Jia Village, Shaanxi Province, Banping Village in Fufeng Chengguan, Shaanxi Province, and Shangquan Village in Chang'an, Xi'an, Shaanxi Province [69]; Buried 2 bi and 2 cong have Shaanxi Fengxiang Fanjiazhai Persimmon Yuan Village; Buried 3 bi and 3 cong include Shaanxi Wugong Yangling Litai Township Hujiadi [70]; The 4 bi and 4 cong are buried in Houliuhe Village, Jingning, Gansu Province [71]. These are all records recounted after the collection of cultural relics [72].

According to the author's statistics, the jade materials used in prehistoric Western China jade from the upper and middle reaches of the Yellow River can be roughly divided into five types of nephrite that are easy to distinguish [73]. Among them, there are two types of jade that are large in number and commonly used to make bi and cong: one is the jade bi cong excavated from Shizhao Village, which is a delicate and opaque dark grass green to blue-green, often surrounded by gray-white bands (Fig. 10), and the jade cong of the Qijia culture [75] collected from the Yuncheng Basin in southern Jin Dynasty [74] also belongs to this kind of flash jade material (Fig. 11); The other type of jade is basically a clear and smooth blue-white, sometimes scattered with insect-like wrappers, or with large gray-black or dark brown almost black patches, which are caused by the contamination of jade with graphite or ferric oxide during the primary mine. In the past, the second type of jade was directly identified as coming from Khotan, Xinjiang, but in recent years, more than one sphale jade mine with similar metallogenic conditions has been found in Gansu [76], so it is also possible that the blue-white jade with gray-black and maroon-red spots from the first Qijia to the Qijia culture period also came from Gansu.

Around 2000 B.C., or due to climate change and other factors, there were many people moving in China. The area of Qingliang Temple in the Yuncheng Basin of Jinnan Province may be fought for by people from all walks of life because of the discovery and understanding of pond salt resources, leaving rich archaeological data. Around 2050 BC [77], a new population invaded, leaving the remains of the third phase there[78].

The remains of Qingliang Temple present a complex connotation that mixes the cultures of Tao Temple, Wangwan Phase III, and Kexingzhuang [79]. However, most of the jade artifacts made of flash jade unearthed from the tombs of the third phase are typical of the Qi family culture style. For example, the jade cong excavated from M52 (Fig. 12) is a typical Qijia style from the analysis of jade material, shape and production process, and only the practice of adding two vertical yin lines to each surface should be influenced by the East China jade style and can be classified into the Jin-Shaanxi style of Qijia jade. A number of jade artifacts in a similar situation have been collected in Shaanxi [80], so it is possible that jade artifacts such as Figure 12 Yucong were brought into southern Jinnan from Shaanxi.

In the past, the author suspected that the residents of the third phase of Qingliang Temple were the ancestors of the Qijia culture who invaded eastward in order to occupy the pond salt in the Yuncheng Basin. After a recent detailed reading of the report and related papers, the author changed his view and believed that the Qijia-style jade unearthed in Qingliang Temple (including those excavated in Potou) may be the finished products exchanged by the residents of the third phase of Qingliang Temple with pond salt to the residents of Qijia culture in Shaanxi [81]. Therefore, the residents of Qingliang Temple will use Bi, Cong, and Duohuang Lianbi as wrist ornaments, which is not a cultural custom of the Qi family [82].

More than 20 years ago, the archaeological community was completely ignorant of the very developed prehistoric ideas of "celestial worship" and "homogeneous sensibility" in the upper and middle reaches of the Yellow River and the rituals of "Bicong combination", nor did they really fully understand the color characteristics of various flashing jades and the characteristics of jade craftsmanship in various regions.

In fact, in prehistoric East China, the "worship of the essence of things" was prevalent, and in the early days of the Liangzhu culture, the wrists and upper arms of the witches often wore jade bracelets and jade arms carved with the face patterns of the gods and ancestors, and the walls of the vessels were curved. In the 80s of the 20th century, excavators from Yaoshan and Anti-Mountain were misled by the scholars of gold and stone at the end of the 19th century [83] and named this kind of decorative jade bracelet as "Cong" in ritual vessels (Fig. 13), and also put forward the so-called "bracelet-style cong" and "cong-style bracelet", which completely deviated from the basic definition of "cong" in the Chinese ritual system as "a square jade ritual vessel for sacrificing to the earth".

Around 2600 B.C., at the turn of the early and late Liangzhu culture[84], the cultural landscape underwent a dramatic change, with the so-called "dragon head pattern" originally popular on jade disappearing, a large number of large jade bibs appeared, and jade bracelets also metamorphosed into tall cylindrical vessels with many simple patterns and square faces from a bird's eye view (Fig. 14). The factors that caused this cultural mutation have not been seriously explored, and the author suspects that it may be due to the influence of the "celestial worship" belief and the "Bicong combination" ritual system in the upper and middle reaches of the Yellow River through the transmission of the "upper communication network". Since the jade cong of the late Liangzhu culture was developed from the jade bracelet of the early stage of the culture, the author believes that the real Fang Cong developed in the late Liangzhu culture is a "secondary jade cong".

About 1600 B.C., with the decline of the Qi culture, the upper and middle reaches of the Yellow River, relying on the belief of "celestial worship", the "Bicong combination" ritual system also gradually declined, and the Zhou people rose and established the "Bigui combination" ritual system.

As mentioned above, some scholars have verified the character "Cong" in oracle bone inscriptions and Jin inscriptions, but no record of "Cong" can be found in pre-Qin documents such as Shangshu, Shijing, and Zuo Chuan, which convey the historical facts of the Zhou Dynasty, so it can be inferred that "Cong" did not enter the core of the ritual system of the merchants and Zhou people[85]. The common prototypes or restructured and patterned Qi family jade cong [86] in Shang and Zhou tombs are mostly antiquities of the time. Although scholars continue to pay attention to the placement of jade congs in Zhou tombs and try to explore their function [87], in fact, they may have been purely antiques at the time and had no rude significance [88].

It is worth noting that from the late Spring and Autumn period to the Warring States Period, in the tombs of the nobles of the Zhou culture in the upper and middle reaches of the Yellow River, especially in the Sanjin region[89], newly made Xiaocong often appeared in the coffin or between the coffins [90]. They are mostly square thick jade pieces with a middle hole of 3-5 cm in length, the workmanship is sloppy, some of the edges are smoothed, some of them carve two grooves on each side, some of them carve a circular concave circle on the surface around the middle hole to represent the shooting mouth of the jade cong, and some of them are carved on the surface of the vessel to the popular moire of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty. For example, the tomb of Zhao Qing in the late Spring and Autumn period in Jinsheng Village, Taiyuan, Shanxi Province [91]

and the small jade cong [92] (Fig. 15) excavated from the tombs of the nobles of the Warring States period in the watershed of Changzhi, which Hayashi believes to be in line with the "Dacong" [93] (Fig. 16) recorded in the Zhou Li. This kind of simple and shoddy work

Xiao Cong is very rare, and it is almost non-existent in the National Palace Museum in Taipei, where the author served, and in the overseas diaspora that the author visited.

5. The formation of the "Six Instruments" of the "Zhou Li" and its practice in the Western Han Dynasty

In short, the combination of the three cultural traditions of "Bi, Gui and Zhang" in the jade ritual system of the Zhou Dynasty, "Amber and Huang" in the Chu culture during the Warring States Period and "Cong" under the retro trend in the Sanjin region has achieved the "Zhou Guan, Chunguan Zongbo" in "using jade as six utensils to honor the four directions of heaven and earth: to the sky with Cangbi, to the earth with Huang Cong, to the east with Qinggui, to the south with Chizhang, to the west with white amber, and to the north with Xuanhuang." There are all livestock coins, each with its own color" structure.

According to the research of scholars, the content of "Zhou Guan" is not all about the ritual system implemented in the Zhou Dynasty, but a standardized general idea for the political system, the duties of hundreds of officials, and the operation of the ritual system after integrating the multicultural connotations of the land of China thousands of years before the book was written. Therefore, when we examine the functional distribution of these six jade artifacts in Chunguan Zongbo, it seems that only the theory of Bicong assemblage is in line with the archaeological phenomenon of the Miaodigou culture, the Kexingzhuang culture and the Qijia culture in the upper and middle reaches of the Yellow River from 3500 BC to 1600 BC, and the distribution of the other four functions, especially the description of adding colors such as green, red, white, and Xuan before the name of each artifact, may be just the author's imagination.

According to the "Hanshu Jing Thirteen Kings Biography", "Zhou Guan" was purchased by Liu De, the son of Emperor Jing of the Western Han Dynasty, from the people and presented to the imperial court. Extrapolating from the reign of King Hejian Xian (155-129 BC), it is likely that the book was sent to the court during the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty [94]. In the Tang Dynasty, Jia Gongyan's "Preface to the Justice of Zhou Li" and other materials mostly record that the book was only hidden in the secret mansion after it was sent to the court, and it was not taken seriously until the end of the Western Han Dynasty when Liu Xiang and Liu Xin and his son sorted out the collection of the secret mansion. Wang Mang was appointed as a scholar and renamed "Zhou Li", and Zheng Xuan, a great Confucian in the Eastern Han Dynasty, made a note for it, which gradually became the most valued book for the study of etiquette. However, from today's archaeological excavation data, it can be inferred that the book "Zhou Guan" is likely to be valued when it was presented to the court, and the sacrificial jade was made based on the records of the "Six Instruments". In addition to referring to the comparative study of several batches of unearthed sacrificial jade, the author's inference also assists in the dating of the real object by confirming the jade material.

In 1979 and 1980, 85 and more than 100 pieces of jade were unearthed in Lianzhi Village and Lujiakou in Xi'an, respectively, and they were only published in the early 20th century, dating from the Warring States Period to the Qin Dynasty [95]. However, Professor Liang Yun believes that the two batches of sacrificial jade in Lianzhi Village and Lujiakou should also be from the Western Han Dynasty according to the jade figure in the sacrificial jade unearthed in Luanting Mountain, Lixian County, Gansu Province. He also speculated based on the literature that Lianzhi Village was a Taiyi altar in the southeastern suburbs of Chang'an City in the Western Han Dynasty, and Lujiakou was the place of worship in the Weiyang Palace[96].

The author agrees with Professor Liang Yun's re-interpretation of the age of these two batches of jade. In addition to the similarity of utensils and shapes, the most important evidence is the characteristics of jade. From the pictures of these two batches of jade, it can be seen that they are mainly made of "Chu-style green jade", which is a jade material that was valued and even monopolized by the ruling class of Chu during the Warring States period, and the upper and middle reaches of the Yellow River during the Warring States period were within the scope of the Qin State, and it was basically impossible to obtain a large amount of Chu-style green jade. However, in the Western Han Dynasty, the royal family came from the Chu region, and as the absolute first choice for the burial of the princes surnamed Liu, the ancestors of the gods and goddesses of course also chose this Chu-style green jade, which may be regarded as having a special "essence"[97] and communicating with the gods.

The materials of Lianzhicun and Lujiakou were unearthed early and in large quantities, but fortunately they were not seriously dispersed, and although they were only published in selected samples, the basic types of utensils have been published, and it can be seen that the "six instruments" contained in the "Zhou Guan" were readily available at this time[98]. Among them, the shape of the jade ware with small holes (Fig. 17, 1, 2) is consistent with the jade stone unearthed from the architectural site of Emperor Jingdi Yangling in the Western Han Dynasty and the Pingling Mausoleum of Emperor Zhao [99].

Some of the jade cong pieces were made of jade materials of the time with a hole in the middle (Fig. 17, 3), while others were made from jade cong of the Qi family culture 1 or 2,000 years earlier than the Western Han Dynasty (Fig. 17, 4). From this phenomenon, it may be inferred that until the Western Han Dynasty, the ancestors who lived in the upper and middle reaches of the Yellow River may still know that this "old antique" was a ritual vessel for ancestors to worship the earth. The jade gui is the same as the pointed head gui common in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, with a triangular pointed upper end (Fig. 17, 5, 6), but the jade is clearly different from the jade in the tombs of Western Zhou nobles (Fig. 4) in that it has an oblique triangular blade at the upper end (Fig. 17, 7, 8). A similar combination of one gui and one zhang has been unearthed in the Western Han tomb of Shuofang, Shanxi Province [100], as well as the tomb of a nobleman who may have been in the Yue Kingdom during the Warring States period [101].

It can be seen from this that the record of "剡上 for Gui, half Gui for Zhang" in the Eastern Han Dynasty book "Shuowen Jie Zi" is based on the system from the Warring States period to the Western Han Dynasty. The jade amber is a beast crouching on its side (Fig. 17, 9, 10), which is also different from the Warring States jade amber (Fig. 5, Fig. 6). As mentioned above, the ink script on Chu Jian and jade artifacts confirms the shape and use of the jade amber of the Warring States period, and also shows that in the late Warring States period, it was popular to surround the image of the amber around the jade bi, forming a "double body with a head and an amber dragon pattern" (Fig. 7). Or because the late Warring States period to the early Western Han Dynasty did not make Chu-style monomer "amber", so by the middle of the Western Han Dynasty, there was nothing to rely on, and only the imagination could make quite realistic jade amber. Some of the jade is plain and unveiled (Fig. 17, 11a), and some are depicted with an animal's head at each end (Fig. 17, 11b, 12), both as a follower of tradition and as an innovator.

The two batches of jade unearthed in Lianzhi Village and Lujiakou are quite precious, not only the officially unearthed and recorded sacrificial jade, but also the only two complete sets of "six vessels" in the world. Based on this, it can be speculated that "Zhou Guan" should be taken seriously after it was sent to the court. The Emperor of the Han family advocated sacrifice, and in recent years, new discoveries have been made in Gansu and Shaanxi. Shaanxi Yongcheng Blood Pool excavated the site of "Beizhi" in the Western Han Dynasty. A group of four jade artifacts were unearthed in each of the five sacrificial pits, including the arc-shaped "Yuhuang" symbolizing the heavens, the perforated square "Yucong" symbolizing the earth, and the jade figurines in the shape of a man and a woman [102] (Fig. 18). In 2018, the site of "Wuyang Xiaqi" was discovered in Wucheng, Baoji, and a total of 6 groups of jade artifacts were unearthed, each group of 3 pieces, in addition to a male and a female jade figurine, there is also a square cong, most of which are jade square pieces with middle holes, thick, and shallow shots [103].

The book "Zhou Guan" was renamed "Zhou Li" in the Xinmang period, and he was set up as a scholar. In the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zheng Xuan made notes for it, and since then it has gradually become a model for etiquette in all dynasties. The system of "bi" and "cong" as the main utensils used by the gods of worship and "jade silk" was also implemented in the Qing Dynasty [104]. According to the entry "Jade Silk Prison" in the "History of the Ming Dynasty, Zhi XXIII, Liyi, Jiliyi", "Jade Third Class: God, Cangbi; The record of "Huang Di, Huang Cong" shows that in the Ming Dynasty, jade bi and jade cong were ritual vessels to worship the gods and earth. Fig. 19 is a group of jade ritual vessels excavated from the Dingling Tomb of Mingshenzong (1620 AD) [105], in which the author believes that the perforated round jade pieces and perforated square jade slices should be Yuanbi and Fang Cong, respectively (Fig. 19, 2, 3). Although it has been about 1,700 years since Emperor Wu of the Western Han Dynasty (141-87 BC), the Fang Cong unearthed in Dingling is strikingly similar to the jade ritual vessel "Cong" unearthed from Han Dynasty sites such as Lianzhi Village, Xuechi, and Wucheng, proving that Chinese culture has a strong continuity.

6. Explanation: Speculation on the long-term mistrust of information in the academic community

At this point, the content that needs to be written in the article proposition has basically been completed. However, based on the long-term observation of the blind spots of misbelief in the academic community, the author

It is believed that the mistakes left by the two predecessors of Xia Nai and Hayashi Naifu should be clarified.

Figure 20 is the diagram cited by Mr. Xia Nai in two papers in 1983, but only the part of the text is framed by a thick black line, omitting the surrounding characters[106], and the title is "The 'Six Jade Pictures' on the Han Monument", which believes that "these pictures were imagined and drawn by the Han people based on the Three Rites scriptures and Han Confucian commentaries". The note states that it is quoted from pages 3-6 of volume 5 of Hong Shi's "Lixu", and the version is from the 1872 Hong's Huimuzhai series of books [107]. In fact, the Song Dynasty's "Lixu" has long been lost, and he cites later inscriptions[108].

According to the author's research, Figure 20 may be a fabrication of the Song people or even the Ming people.

Those who are familiar with the art of stone carving in the Han Dynasty can see at a glance that the picture is not at all a rubbings of the stone carvings of the Han Dynasty: the shapes of phoenix birds, ox heads, and unicorns carved on the top, middle and bottom are completely inconsistent with the artistic style of the Han Dynasty. In addition, the "Mao" in the upper right corner is similar to the "Mao" [109] in Nie Chongyi's Xinding Three Rites in the Northern Song Dynasty, except that the groove below is in the shape of an inverted "V", and its size and opening angle are exactly at the triangular tip of the "Gui" below. This is entirely in line with the composition created by the Song and Ming dynasties that "counterfeiting is a tool used to cover the top of the gui".

In the study of ancient jade in the tradition of epigraphy, "mao" or "mao" is a "mysterious jade" related to "gui". "Mao"

There is no "jade" next to it, and it is written as "rising". "Zhou Li, Winter Official, Examination of Gongji, Jade People" mentioned for the first time that there is a jade named "Mao", which is the Ruiyu of the Son of Heaven: "The Son of Heaven holds four inches to the princes." In the early years of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Xu Shen defined "Mao" in "Shuo Wen Jie Zi": "The princes hold the Son of Heaven, and the Son of Heaven holds the jade to take the risk, like a plow crown." When Zheng Xuan, a great Confucian of the Eastern Han Dynasty, commented on "Zhou Li", he said: "The name of the jade is false, and the words and virtues can cover the world." In the Song Dynasty, Chen Xiangdao's "Book of Rites" added a new saying: "Risking to know the faith and falsity of the princes is still in line with today." In other words, "impersonation" has become a "tool for identifying counterfeits" for the Son of Heaven to check whether the courtiers who come to the court are "counterfeits" and whether the gui they hold is a "fake".

At the end of the Ming Dynasty, in Zhang Zilie's "Zhengzitong", there has been an increase in the jade character side of the "Mao": "The princes ascended the throne, the Son of Heaven gave the life of Gui, Gui on the evil sharp, the four inches of the Mao, the bottom is also evil, the width and narrowness are as short as the head of the Gui, the princes hold the Gui to come to the court, the Son of Heaven to the carving of the Mao, the head of the Gui, to Qi Ruixin, as the current fit." This theory should have been widely accepted at the time, so even the official "Kangxi Dictionary" issued in the 55th year of the Kangxi Reign (1716) quoted this theory. In other words, the "mao" in jade was added to the function of imagination by the Confucian scholars who liked to introduce the ancient in the Song and Ming dynasties, and then evolved into a new character.

Combined with the above information, the author suspects that there is no so-called "Han Dynasty Liumin Tablet" at all, or that there was a forged "Han Dynasty Liumin Tablet" in the Song Dynasty. After the Song version of the Lixu was lost, images that may have been created for the Ming dynasty appeared.

Since the "Han Dynasty Liu Min Tablet" on Figure 20 is not a Han Dynasty stone tablet, we must also rethink the image of "Cong" above.

In 1969, Professor Naivo Hayashi wrote an article discussing the images of Cong on four so-called Han monuments, including the Liu Min Tablet, the Yizhou Taishou Tablet, the Six Jade Tablet, and the Single Row Six Jade Tablets (Fig. 21). He believes that these images conform to the description of Cong's "car-like" shape in Shuowen Jie Zi. The "car" is "the iron ring used to thread the axle through the inner and outer parts of the hub (the part of the wheel inserted in the center of the wheel)". Lin Si Naifo worked hard to find an iron polygonal "Che Ji" (Fig. 22) [110] from the Han Dynasty excavated in the Chengdong District of Hanhe County, Luoyang, and combined with the image of "Cong" included in the "Lixu", he deduced that an octagonal stone tablet (Fig. 23) [111] unearthed in Tomb No. 4 in the western suburbs of Luoyang was Cong in the middle of the Warring States period [112]. Based on this, Professor Xie Mingliang further speculated that the octagonal stone tablets (Fig. 24) [113] unearthed from the Mausoleum of Prince Huizhao (812 AD) in the Tang Dynasty should be the "Cong" of the Tang Dynasty [114].

Since the images of the Han monuments included in the "Lixu" are likely to have been fabricated by scholars of the Song or Ming dynasties, and Figures 22 and 23 are both archaeological excavations, to be honest, the shapes of the two are really not the same, and it has been verified that the newly made Cong in the tombs of the nobles of the Central Plains and Zhou culture during the Warring States Period is a proportionally thick jade square piece with a hole in the middle, such as the small jade cong unearthed from the tomb of Zhao Qing and the watershed M126 (Figure 15), while the newly made Cong in the Western Han Dynasty is a thin jade square piece with a hole in the middle of the scale, such as the jade cong unearthed in Lianzhi Village and the site of the blood pool (Figure 17, 3; Fig. 18), therefore, we really don't have to continue to follow the misunderstanding and fantasy of Lin Sinaifu, and far-fetched believe that the stone tablets unearthed from the tomb in the middle of the Warring States period in the western suburbs of Luoyang are Cong. As for the stone tablets unearthed from the tomb of Prince Huizhao of Tang Dynasty (Fig. 24), are they "Cong" in the Tang Dynasty? It may not be easy to answer for a while, and it needs to be further studied.

exegesis

[1] Li Youqian, "Important Gains in the Archaeology of Xiaonanshan Site in Raohe, Heilongjiang Province", China Cultural Relics News, December 25, 2015, 2nd edition.

[2] Sun Changqing, Yin Deming, and Gan Zhigeng, "Introduction to Neolithic Jade in Heilongjiang", East Asian Jade, vol. 1, Hong Kong: Hong Kong Chinese University, 1998, pp. 120-127; Zhao Binfu, Sun Mingming, Du Zhanwei, "The Age and Nature of the Jade Artifacts Unearthed from the Tomb of Xiaonanshan in Raohe", Frontier Archaeological Research, Vol. 14, Beijing: Science Press, 2013; Yang Hu, Liu Guoxiang et al., "A Preliminary Discussion on Jade in Xinglongwa Culture", East Asian Jade, vol. 1, Hong Kong: Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1998, pp. 128-139; Yang Hu, Liu Guoxiang and Deng Cong, Exploration of the Origin of Jade, Hong Kong: Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2007; Liaoning Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology: "Chahai - Neolithic Settlement Site Excavation Report", Beijing: Cultural Relics Publishing House, 2012.

[3] Nephrite, also known as "tremolite jade", is a solid solution composed of tremolite and actinolite, and was called "nephrite" in the early years. In the past, archaeological data only proved that flash jade products appeared in the Songze culture, and the data of Dongshan Village advanced the age of the use of flash jade to the late Majiabang culture.

[4] Zhangjiagang Museum and Nanjing Museum, "Excavation Report on M101 Site of Dongshan Village, Zhangjiagang, Jiangsu", Southeast Culture, No. 3, 2013.

[5] Yang Jing, "Research on the Morphology of Jade Artifacts Unearthed from Dongshan Village Site", Dongshan Village: Neolithic Site Excavation Report, Beijing: Cultural Relics Publishing House, 2016, pp. 640-660.

[6] Shaanxi Provincial Institute of Archaeology, Longgang Temple: Neolithic Site Excavation Report, Beijing: Cultural Relics Publishing House, 1990; Deng Shuping, "On the Prehistoric Jade Culture in the Upper and Middle Reaches of the Yellow River", Collected Essays on the Celebration of Mr. Guo Dashun's Eighth Birthday, Beijing: Cultural Relics Publishing House, 2018.

[7] The so-called pre-Qijia cultures refer to the areas in Gansu, Ningxia and Shaanxi that later developed the Qijia culture, and some archaeological cultures that were successively related to the later Qijia culture from 2800 to 2300 BC.

[8] According to the Xia, Shang and Zhou dynasties, the Xia Dynasty was around 2070-1600 BC.

[9] The author is more familiar with the ancient jade scattered in Europe and the United States in the early 20th century, and through comparative research, it can be seen that the scattered Erlitou style jade is more beautiful and larger in size than the jade unearthed in Erlitou, so the author suspects that there was a more important Xia period than Erlitou that the capital was destroyed.

[10] For example, the Qijia culture is dominated by Yuanbi, Fangcong, and Lianbi. The Shiyuan culture is dominated by black jade teeth and large knives. Later Shijiahe culture is carved with the inlays, ornaments and eagle patterns of the face of the gods. In addition to the teeth, the appearance of the ancestors' facial patterns on the narrow and long trapezoidal axe tools is also a noteworthy phenomenon.

[11] For example, the jade ge, Yazhang, and perforated long knives with grid lines unearthed in Erlitou are the West China style related to the Shiyuan culture, the unearthed handle-shaped ware is related to the Later Shijiahe culture, and the unearthed jade often has the "East China style teeth" developed from the "Jiezi crown top", which is related to the Longshan culture and the Later Shijiahe culture in Shandong.

[12] "Chinese Chu (Part II)": "Wang Yue: The so-called one pure, two essence, and seven things, what is it? He said: The holy king is upright in his crown, and he does not disobey his heart, and he is handsome with the essence of his ministers to enjoy the worship in prison, and there is no one who is harsh on God, which is called pure. Jade silk is two essences. ”

[13] It is likely that because both of these substances have a spring-like luster, and the movement of the sun controls the rotation of day and night, the movement of the seasons, and the growth of living things, the ancients paid special attention to the substances that emitted luster under the thinking of sun worship.

[14] Deng Shuping, "Reflections on the Formation of "Jade Silk Culture"±, Southern Cultural Relics, No. 1, 2018.

[15] Xu Jun, "Exploring the Origin of Ancient Chinese Dynasties and Political Names", Wuhan: Central China Normal University Press, 2000.

[16] Xu Jun, Exploring the Origins of Ancient Chinese Dynasties and Regimes, Wuhan: Central China Normal University Press, 2000.

[17] Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Chinese Archaeology: Xia Shang Juan, Beijing: China Social Sciences Press, 2003; Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences: Chinese Archaeology: Two Weeks, Beijing: China Social Sciences Press, 2004.

[18] Deng Shuping, "Wanbang Jade Silk - The Cultural Heritage of the Xia Dynasty", in Xia Shang Duyi and Culture (II): Proceedings of an Academic Symposium to Commemorate the 55th Anniversary of the Discovery of the Erlitou Ruins, Beijing: China Social Sciences Press, 2014.

[19] Deng Shuping, "A Preliminary Study on Jade Ritual Vessels and Jade Ritual System", Southern Cultural Relics, No. 1, 2017; Deng Shuping, "Three Generations and Three Clans as Seen by Yuli", Palace Museum Cultural Relics Monthly, No. 388, July 2015.

[20] The small tomb M232 of the first phase of Xiaotun Yinxu unearthed jade, bird, jade tiger, etc. Shi Zhangru, "Xiaotun No. 1: The Discovery and Excavation of the Ruins, Part C, Yinxu Tombs No. 3, Supplements to the North Group of Tombs in the South Group", Taipei: Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica, 1973.

[21] Many animal-shaped jade carvings were unearthed from the tomb of Nuhao in the second phase of Yinxu, not because women loved ornaments, but because Nuhao held the right to sacrifice and had jade clothes decorated with jade carved animals.

[22] The term "jade tree" is found in the Book of Han and the History of the Song Dynasty. "Hanshu Lile Zhi": "Decorated with jade shoots to dance and sing, the body is swaggering like eternal hope." Yan Shigu notes: "The tip, the rod is also held by the dancer." Jade tip, with jade ornaments. "History of the Song Dynasty: Le Zhi Jiu": "Jade clips are decorated with songs, and they are embellished with Wei Brigade. ”

[23] "Baoyuyi" said from "Historical Records: Yin Benji": "On Jiazi Day, the army was defeated. He walked in, climbed the deer platform, dressed in his precious jade clothes, and died in the fire. "The king of Shang is a great witch, and when he is dying, he wears a treasure jade robe, hoping to ascend to heaven with the help of the mana of the jade carving animal.

[24] Deng Shuping, "The Circle and the Square: Heaven and Earth and Yin and Yang in the Thinking of the Ancients", Palace Museum Cultural Relics Monthly, No. 386, May 2015; Deng Shuping, "From the Zodiac, Taiyi to the Four Spirits", Palace Museum Cultural Relics Monthly, No. 390, September 2015.

[25] According to the chronology of the latest closing report of the Civilization Exploration Project. See Chang Huaiying, "The Xia Dynasty in the Early Chinese Vision", Sanlian Life Weekly, No. 23, 2018.

[26] The report on the closure of the Xia, Shang and Zhou dynasties project is based on 1046 BC as the turn of the Shang and Zhou dynasties, so King Wu should be critically ill around 1043 BC.

[27] "Shangshu Jinteng": "Gong Nai thinks he is meritorious, and he is the same as the three altars." For the altar in the south, north, Zhou Gongyan. Zhibi Bingqi is to sue the king, Wang Ji, and King Wen. ”

[28] Deng Shuping, "°Guibi Kao"±, Palace Museum Quarterly, No. 3, 1977; Figure 1 is quoted from Shandong Provincial Museum and Liangzhu Museum, eds., Yurun Oriental: Dawenkou-Longshan and Liangzhu Jade Culture Exhibition, Beijing: Cultural Relics Publishing House, 2014.

[29] Late Qing Dynasty Wu Dashi, "Ancient Jade Illustrated Examination", published by Shanghai Tongshu Company in the 15th year of Guangxu (1889). The Qianlong Emperor in the 18th century and the archaeologist Xia Nai in the 20th century both believed that there must be a triangular tip at one end of the "Gui". For details, see the author's humble article: "A Preliminary Study on Jade Ritual Vessels and Jade Ritual System", Southern Cultural Relics, No. 1, 2017.

[30] Dai Yingxin collected two pieces of black jade made of Ge in Shenmu Shiyuan in northern Shaanxi around 1976, see Dai Yingxin, "Shenmu Shiyuan Longshan Cultural Jade Exploration (IV) - Ge, Axe and Yue", Forbidden City Cultural Relics Monthly, No. 128, November 1993. In 2011, thanks to the assistance of Liu Yunhui, director of the Shaanxi Provincial Bureau of Cultural Relics, the author once visually inspected the jade Ge collected in the storehouse of the museum, and thought that it was more ancient than the jade Ge unearthed in Erlitou. Several pieces of jade Ge were unearthed in Erlitou, and some of them also had the phenomenon of restructuring.

[31] For the relationship between the rise and fall of axe and axe Pingshougui and Ge Jianshougui in undestroyed tombs from the late Shang to early Western Zhou dynasties, see Cunning, "Analysis of the Multi-Origin of Western Zhou Jade Culture", in Hehe Zong Zhou: Western Zhou Culture Special Exhibition, Taipei: National Palace Museum, Taipei, 2012.

[32] Fig. 2 is quoted from Deng Shuping, "Guibi Examination", Palace Museum Quarterly, No. 3, 1977.

[33] Sun Qingwei, "°Captive Jade and Dividers: The Source and Circulation of Jade Artifacts of the Previous Dynasty in the Tombs of the Zhou Dynasty"±, Forbidden City Cultural Relics Monthly, No. 354, September 2012.

[34] Fig. 3 is quoted from the Department of Archaeology, Peking University, Shanxi Provincial Institute of Archaeology, "The Second Excavation of the Northern Zhao and Jin Marquis Cemetery at the Tianma-Qucun Site", Cultural Relics, No. 1, 1994.

[35] Shaanxi Provincial Institute of Archaeology, Baoji Archaeological Team, Meixian Cultural Center Joint Archaeological Team, "Western Zhou Bronze Cellar in Yangjia Village, Meixian County, Shaanxi", Archaeology and Cultural Relics, No. 3, 2003.

[36] Sun Qingwei, "Shangyu Inscriptions and the Dowry of the Zhou Dynasty", Archaeological Research (10), Beijing: Science Press, 2012, pp. 506-514.

[37] Sun Qingwei, "A Study on the Jade System of the Zhou Dynasty", Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, 2008.

[38] Shaanxi Provincial Institute of Archaeology, Weinan Institute of Cultural Relics Protection and Archaeology, Hancheng Scenic Area Management Committee, "Ruiguo Cemetery in Liangdai Village: 2007 Excavation Report", Beijing: Cultural Relics Publishing House, 2010. Figure 4 is an excerpt from this book.

[39] Huang Cuimei, "The Glory of Pearls and Jades in the Clouds and the Sun: The Jade Huang Group from the Western Zhou Dynasty to the Spring and Autumn Period", The Spirit of Heaven and Earth, Hangzhou: Zhejiang Ancient Books Publishing House, 2013.

[40] Archaeological excavations have proved that Hayashi's earliest views are basically correct. Ichiji, "Gui について (I)", Izumiya Hakukokan Chronicles (Vol. 12), Kyoto: Izumiya Hakukokan, 1996.

[41] Deng Shuping, "°Shank-shaped Ware: A Mysterious Jade Species Spanning Three Generations"±, Proceedings of the Academic Symposium on Xia Shang Jade and Jade Culture, Guangzhou: Lingnan Fine Arts Publishing House, 2018.

[43] The author has already put forward this argument in his 1999 paper, see "On the Development and Evolution of Ancient Jade from the Neolithic Age to the Han Dynasty", in The Sequel to the Separate Collections of Jade, Taipei: National Palace Museum, Taipei, 1999, pp. 10-67. Other scholars have reached similar conclusions, see Sun Qingwei, A Study on the Jade System of the Zhou Dynasty, Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, 2008.

[44] Gu Xianzi, Li Yinde, Qiu Zhili, et al., "Research on the Characteristics and Origin of Jade Materials of the Golden Jade Clothes and Jade Inlaid Lacquer Coffins Unearthed from the Tomb of King Chu in Lion Mountain, Xuzhou", Cultural Relics Protection and Archaeological Science, No. 4, 2010.

[45] Since the green jade used in the tomb of King Chu in Lion Mountain was metamorphized from magnesia marble, Gu Xianzi further speculated that the jade material may have come from Kunlun Mountain. The author believes that further research is needed. From the archaeological data, it can be seen that in the early Warring States period, a large number of this grass-green and delicate jade appeared in the Jingzhou area of Hubei Province, and the area is far away from the Kunlun Mountains in Xinjiang, and this kind of green jade has not been unearthed between the two regions. Therefore, the author suspects that the source of this green jade is likely to be near Jingzhou.

[46] Jade artifacts were unearthed from Xiongjiazun in Jingzhou, and some of the ornaments showed the transitional style of the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period. The author has made a brief analysis, see the humble work: "Chu-style Liyu - The Integration and Innovation of the Ancient "Essence Worship" and "Celestial Body Worship", Hunan Provincial Museum Journal, Vol. 14, Changsha: Yuelu Publishing House, 2018.

[47] The 21.3 cm diameter grain pattern bi buried in the JSK1 sacrificial pit of Xiongjiazuka. For information, see Jingzhou Museum: "Jingzhou Chu Jade: Chu Jade Unearthed in Jingzhou, Hubei Province during the Warring States Period", Beijing: Cultural Relics Publishing House, 2012.

[48] Fig. 5 Quoted from the Editorial Committee of the Complete Works of Chinese Jade: The Complete Works of Chinese Jade 3: Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, Shijiazhuang: Hebei Fine Arts Publishing House, 1993.

[49] Hubei Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, "Jiangling Wangshan Sand Mound Chu Tomb", Beijing: Cultural Relics Publishing House, 1996, p.163. For the interpretation of the "Huang", "Tiger" and "Amber" materials in the bamboo slips, see Zhu Dexi et al., "Interpretation and Interpretation of Bamboo Slips in Wangshan No. 1 and No. 2 Tombs", pp. 278 and 300.

[50] Because in the Neolithic Age, the lower reaches of the Yellow River originally belonged to the East China cultural circle, and after the Second Eastern Crusade in the early years of the Western Zhou Dynasty, the lower reaches of the Yellow River were incorporated into the Zhou cultural system through the feudal system, but after the rise of the Chu State based on East China culture during the Warring States Period, the lower reaches of the Yellow River quickly absorbed Chu-style funeral rites and Taoist thinking.

[51] Hebei Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics, "Tomb - The Tomb of the King of Zhongshan in the Warring States Period", Beijing: Cultural Relics Publishing House, 1996; Zhang Shouzhong, Zhongshan Wangqi Script Edition, Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1981.

[52] From the late Spring and Autumn period to the Warring States period, the Zhou cultural circle also had animal-shaped pendants with sinuous bodies, commonly known as "dragon-shaped pendants", but they were not made of Chu-style green jade. See Deng Shuping, "Chu-style Ritual Jade: The Integration and Innovation of Ancient "Essence Worship" and "Celestial Body Worship", Hunan Provincial Museum Journal, vol. 14, Changsha: Yuelu Publishing House, 2018.

[53] Hubei Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, "Jiangling Wangshan Sha Mound Chu Tomb", Beijing: Cultural Relics Publishing House, 1996, p. 122.

[54] Mou Yongkang observed that the jade carving birds, fish, and turtles of the Liangzhu culture all had tunnels, which were presumably sewn into the "Baoyu clothes" worn by the shamans to assist the wizards in channeling. Jian's author, "A Discussion on "Broken Hair Tattoos", originally published in Collected Papers on Bronze Research in Wuyue Region, Hong Kong: Liangmu Publishing House, 1997. Later, it was included in Mu Yongkang's Archaeological Anthology, Beijing: Science Press, 2009.

[55] Yang Jing made an in-depth analysis of the significance of the late Majiabang Yuhuang. Jianshi, "Research on the Morphology of Jade Unearthed at Dongshan Village Site", Dongshan Village: Neolithic Site Excavation Report, Beijing: Cultural Relics Publishing House, 2016.

[56] This view was first proposed by the author in 1994. See "Understanding and Appreciation of Ancient Jade: From the Exhibition of Kaohsiung Museum of Art", Palace Museum Cultural Relics Monthly, No. 141, December 1994.

[57] Cai Qingliang, "°On the Application of Artifact Methods in Jade Research"±, Ancient Civilization, vol. 2, Beijing: Cultural Relics Publishing House, 2003.

[58] Such as the ancient city of Qufu Lu, the tomb of Qi in Linzi Shangwang Village, etc.

[59] Sun Qingwei, "The Customs of Using Jade in Chu from the Perspective of Geling Chu Jian", Proceedings of the International Symposium on Jade Culture in the Xia and Shang Periods, Beijing: Science Press, 2018. Reprinted in the Research Center for Chinese Archaeology, Peking University, Zhengzhou Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, and the Research Center for Jade and Jade Culture of Peking University: Jade Archaeology Newsletter, No. 11, 2018. Yan Changgui, Witches and Obscenity: A Religious Examination of the Fangshu Seen by Chu Jian, Wuhan: Wuhan University Press, 2010.

[60] In 2007, Zhang Jian published a paper at the Center for Unearthed Literature and Paleography Research Center of Fudan University: "Interpretation of Cong" and Related Characters (1) and (2). He started with the Warring States period Jin Wen and researched a character that had been interpreted as "Ning" by Tang Lan and others. The shape of the character is "the center is round, and the triangle extends symmetrically from the top and bottom, left and right", in this regard, Zhang Jian believes that it should be read the same as "pet", "from", "zong" and "chong". In the Shang and Zhou oracle bone inscriptions and Jin inscriptions, it is often a place name. This sound note is added with "jade" as a symbol, and it should be interpreted as the ancient word "cong". Zhang Jian believes that the glyph is similar to the shape of the jade cong when viewed from above. So far, no philologists have raised objections to this research. However, the author believes that the convincing power of this research is quite weak, because today reading "Cong" is the same as "pet" and "chong", but it is difficult to know whether it was pronounced like this in the Shang and Zhou dynasties.

[61] Wang Weilin, "The Origin of Miaodigou Culture and Bi", Archaeology and Cultural Relics, No. 6, 2015. Two years ago, Director Wang Weilin orally informed the author that the date was about 3500 BC. Recently, the author consulted researcher Yang Liping, the current excavation host of Yangguanzhai ruins, and learned that a total of one bi and two cong (both fragments) were found, and the three were buried in three ash pits with nothing else. The current measured 14C data is about 200 years later.

[62] A slightly more detailed explanation of the humble work "On the Prehistoric Jade Culture in the Upper and Middle Reaches of the Yellow River", published in Essays on the Celebration of Mr. Guo Dashun's Eighth Birthday, Beijing: Cultural Relics Publishing House, 2018. A Taiwanese collector collected prehistoric jade artifacts in Gansu Province for a long time in the late 20th century, and later donated them to the National Palace Museum in Taipei, where the author served. From the pre-Qi style to the mature Qi family culture, the jade is in large quantities. Part of it was published in the book: "Circle and Square: Heaven and Earth and Yin and Yang in the Thinking of the Ancients", Palace Museum Cultural Relics Monthly, No. 386, May 2015.

［63］ 图九，1引自袁德星：《中华历史文物》，台北：河洛图书出版社，1977年。 图九，2引自J. G. Andersson.Research into thePrehistory of the Chinese, Bulletin of Museum of Far Eastern Art. No.15.Stockholm. 1943.

[64] Professor Qin Ling is hereby acknowledging this archaeological excavation information. The physical materials are stored in the Shaanxi Provincial Institute of Archaeology, and the briefing is now being organized.

[65] Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Shizhao Village and Xishanping, Beijing: Encyclopedia of China Publishing House, 1999.

[66] Fig. 10,1 by Professor Jiang Meiying at the exhibition site of "Yuze Longxi", Fig. 10,2 from Beijing Art Museum, Gansu Provincial Museum, Qinghai Provincial Museum: Yuze Longxi: Jade of Qijia Culture, Beijing: Beijing Fine Arts Photography Publishing House, 2015, p. 27.

[67] For the test data of the seventh phase of Qijia cultural specimens in Shizhaocun, see Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Collection of Information on the 14th Decade of Carbon in Chinese Archaeology (1965-1991), Beijing: Cultural Relics Publishing House, 1992, pp. 282, 283. The corrected age data of T307(4) are BC2317-BC2042, and the corrected age data of T406(3)H1 are BC2335-BC2044. Due to the complex stratigraphic conditions of the site, the understanding of the age of Qijia culture in the 90s of the 20th century was late, and the above-mentioned specimens were included in the sixth period when the archaeological report was written.

[68] From the source of the Yellow River in Qinghai to Hekou Town, Tuoketuo County, Inner Mongolia, it is the upper reaches of the Yellow River, and below to Taohuayu in Zhengzhou, Henan Province, it is the middle reaches of the Yellow River. Accordingly, Gansu, northeastern Qinghai, Ningxia and Shaanxi are collectively referred to as the "upper and middle reaches of the Yellow River".

[69] For the first report of Heping Village and Shanmen Village, see Luo Feng, "Neolithic Jade in the Middle Reaches of the Yellow River: Focusing on the Jade Artifacts in Ningxia Region", Palace Museum Academic Quarterly, Vol. 19, No. 2, 2001. For information about Jia Village, see Gao Ciruo, "Selected Jade Artifacts in Baoji Museum", Archaeology and Cultural Relics, No. 1, 1995. For information on Xinbanping Village, see Liu Yunhui: "Zhou Yuan Jade", Chinese Cultural Relics Society, 1996. For information about Shangquan Village, see Dai Yingxin, "Exploration of Longshan Cultural Jade in Shenmu Shiqiao", Forbidden City Cultural Relics Monthly, No. 125, October 1993.

[70] For information on Fengxiang and Wugong, see Liu Yunhui, "The Jade of Qijia Culture Unearthed in Guanzhong, Shaanxi", published at the 2016 International Symposium on China, Guanghe, Qijia Culture and Chinese Civilization.

[71] Jingning data was originally reported by Yang Boda, see "Gansu Qijiayu Culture Preliminary Exploration Record Identification of Gansu Ancient Jade Seen in the National First-class Cultural Relics", Longyou Wenbo, No. 1, 1997. At that time, it was announced that it was Sicong and Sanbi. In July 2009, the author visited the Jingning Museum, and realized that the four bi and the four cong were buried in the same pit, and the pit was pressed with large stone slabs. One of the pieces was not handed over because it had been broken into several pieces.

[72] Deng Shuping, "°On the Prehistoric Jade Culture in the Upper and Middle Reaches of the Yellow River"±, Collection of Essays on the Celebration of Mr. Guo Dashun's Eighth Birthday, Beijing: Cultural Relics Publishing House, 2018.

[73] Among the papers published by the author in mainland China, the color of Huaxi jade has been illustrated with pictures so far, see "Wanbang Jade Silk - The Cultural Heritage of the Xia Dynasty", in Xia Shang Duyi and Culture (II): Proceedings of the Academic Symposium to Commemorate the 55th Anniversary of the Discovery of the Erlitou Ruins, Beijing: China Social Sciences Press, 2014.

[74] Before the official excavation, the site of Qingliang Temple accidentally unearthed a batch of jade artifacts due to villagers repairing cave houses, so it attracted outsiders to excavate them, and these were confiscated into the Yuncheng Museum, commonly known as "Potou Jade". Figure 1 belongs to it.

[75] The color of the jade material is typical in Figure 11, and the junction between the gray-white band and the blue-green part is more obvious. The picture was taken from the wall map of the Yuncheng Museum.

[76] It is mainly found in the Horsehair Mountain and Lintao Horsebit Mountain in northern Gansu, and it is said that there are also in the Dunhuang area. The jade mine in Horsehair Mountain was mined relatively late, and the primary ore has not yet been found in Mawei Mountain, but secondary jade materials can indeed be found in mountain streams.

[77] This year was published in Shanxi Provincial Institute of Archaeology, Shanxi Yuncheng Cultural Relics Bureau, Ruicheng County Tourism and Cultural Relics Bureau, "Shanxi Ruicheng Qingliang Temple Prehistoric Cemetery", Journal of Archaeology, No. 4, 2011. In recent years, the author has consulted researcher Xue Xinming, and the data of this era are still true and reliable.

[78] Note[74] It has been stated that the site of Qingliang Temple was excavated before the official excavation, and it was commonly known as "Potou jade". The official excavator is commonly known as "Qingliang Temple Jade", and Figure 12 belongs to it. According to Xue Xinming, the director of the excavation of Qingliang Temple, the real flash jade products in the slope jade artifacts such as Figure 11 are mostly relics of the third period.

[79] Courtesy of researcher Xue Xinming for informing him of the complexity of the site. For the official report, see Shanxi Provincial Institute of Archaeology, Yuncheng Cultural Relics Workstation, Ruicheng County Tourism and Cultural Relics Bureau: Qingliangsi Prehistoric Cemetery, Beijing: Cultural Relics Publishing House, 2016. Pictures 1 and 2 are quoted from this book, and the line drawings are provided by Professor Huang Cuimei.

[80] One piece was collected from Ansai in Yan'an, Shaanxi Province, two pieces were collected from Shenmu Shiyuan, and three pieces were unearthed from the No. 27 tomb of Rui Guo in the early Spring and Autumn Period in Liangdai Village, Hancheng City, which should be early relics.

[81] Researcher Xue Xinming analyzed that the third phase of Qingliang Temple still has the same stone bi as the second period, and believes that the jade artifacts seen in the third phase were made by local residents after exchanging jade materials to the west with pond salt. Jianshi, "Yuhui Qingliang Temple", Proceedings of the International Symposium on Jade Culture in the Xia and Shang Periods, Beijing: Science Press, 2018. The author believes that in the early stage of Qijia culture in Gansu in 2300 BC, the jade craft developed maturely, and mature Bi and Cong (Shizhao Village) were produced. In 2050 B.C., when Qingliang Temple entered the third period, Shanxi has not yet developed a mature jade work with its own style, and the Bi and Cong made of flash jade in the third phase of Qingliang Temple look more mature than the jade Bi Cong of Shizhao Village, which should come directly from the Qijia culture.

[82] The ancestors of the Qi family culture made a large number of Yuanbi, Fangcong, and Duohuang Lianbi, which were ritual vessels for "celestial worship" and were never used as human body decorations. However, in the early cultures of Dawenkou, Xiaoheyan, Songze to Liangzhu in East China, there is a custom of wearing bi and square bracelets on the wrist.

[83] Mainly Duanfang's "Tao Zhai Ancient Jade Map" and Wu Dayi's "Ancient Jade Picture Examination". See Deng Shuping, "The Exploration of "Six Instruments" and the Speculation of "Cong", Central Plains Cultural Relics, No. 2, 2019.

[84] There are different theories about the stages of Liangzhu culture, which are divided into early, middle and late periods in the early years, but in recent years, scholars in Zhejiang have only divided Liangzhu into early and late periods, and merged the early and middle stages of the past into the early and late stages of Liangzhu. There are also many theories about the age of the Liangzhu culture, according to Yang Jing, "Archaeological Exploration of Chinese Prehistoric Jade", Beijing: Social Sciences Academic Press, 2011, the late Liangzhu culture began in 2600 BC.

[85] Deng Shuping, "°A Preliminary Study on Jade Ritual Vessels and Jade Ritual System"±, Southern Cultural Relics, No. 1, 2017.

[86] In addition to the jade cong of the Qi family culture, the so-called "Qi family Yucong" also includes the pre-Qi family lineage, which may belong to the Banshan and Caiyuan cultures (most of them have no or very short shooting ports, the body is often skewed, and the hole wall has wide and irregular rotation marks) and the Jin-Shaanxi Qijia regional style (as shown in Figure 12, the surface of the vessel is engraved with straight or horizontal lines).

[87] The relevant papers that can be referred to are: Hayashi Naifu, "中国國古の玉器、琮にていつ", Oriental Studies, vol. 60, 1988, later included in Shishi, "Chinese Ancient Jade", Tokyo: Yoshikawa Hirobunkan, 1991; Liu Yunhui, "Investigation on the Function of Western Zhou Dynasty Jade Cong Pattern Decoration - Starting from the Jade Cong Discovered in Zhou Yuan", Zhou Yuan Jade, Chinese Cultural Relics Society, 1996; Zhu Naicheng: "Research on the Unearthed Jade Cong from the Good Tomb of Yinxu Women", Cultural Relics, No. 9, 2017; Tang Chao: "A Preliminary Study on the Function of Jade Cong Unearthed from the Western Zhou Dynasty to the Han Dynasty", Southern Cultural Relics, No. 3, 2017; Huang Cuimei, "Relics, Antiquity, and Change: A Study of the Cultural Biography of Yucong from the Late Shang Dynasty to the Early Western Zhou Dynasty", Proceedings of the International Symposium on Jade Culture in the Xia and Shang Periods, Beijing: Science Press, 2018; Huang Cuimei, "The Development of Jade Cong from the Western Zhou Dynasty to the Early Warring States Period", in Jade Soul and National Spirit: Proceedings of the Symposium on Ancient Chinese Jade and Traditional Culture (VIII), Hangzhou: Zhejiang Ancient Books Publishing House, 2019.

[88] Because of the middle hole of the tool, it is placed on the fingers, head, and crotch, and is often interpreted as finger sleeves, hair bundles, genital covers, etc.

[89] The Three Jin Dynasty refers to the three kingdoms of Han, Zhao, and Wei, with a geographical scope of present-day Shanxi and Henan, including Shaanxi, Inner Mongolia, and Hebei.

[90] The sites pointed out by scholars such as Lin Sinaifu (1988), Tang Chao (2017), and Huang Cuimei (2019) include: Taiyuan Jinsheng Village, Changzhi Watershed, and Lucheng Luhe in Shanxi, Liulige and Guwei Village in Huixian County, and Shanbiao Town in Jixian County in Henan.

[91] Shanxi Provincial Institute of Archaeology, Taiyuan Municipal Cultural Relics Management Committee, "Tomb of Zhao Qing of Taiyuan Jin Kingdom", Beijing: Cultural Relics Publishing House, 1996. Figure 15,1 is taken from this report.

[92] Shanxi Provincial Institute of Archaeology, Shanxi Museum, Changzhi City Museum, Eastern Zhou Cemetery of the Changzhi Watershed, Beijing: Cultural Relics Publishing House, 2010. Figure 15, 2 taken by Associate Researcher Zuo Jun in 2018 at the "Yuli China" exhibition hall.

[93] 图一六取自林巳奈夫: "The Ancient Ancient Sacred Ball of China, Rui Yu", "Oriental Studies", No. 40, 1969. Lin Zhiyi, "On the Jade Vessels and Qiu in Ancient China," "Oriental Studies," No. 60, 1988. 二文均增补后收入, "A Study of Chinese Ancient Balls", 东京: Yoshikawa Kobunkan, 1991.

[94] Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty reigned from 141 to 87 BCE.

[95] Liu Yunhui, "°The Grand View of Jade in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty and the Qin Kingdom"±, Chinese Jade Culture: Jade Studies Series (Continuation), Beijing: Forbidden City Publishing House, 2004; Xi'an Institute of Cultural Relics Protection and Archaeology: The Essence of Xi'an Cultural Relics, Jade, Xi'an: World Book Publishing Xi'an, 2004; Liu Yunhui: Eastern Zhou Jade Unearthed in Shaanxi, Beijing: Cultural Relics Publishing House, 2006. These three publications date these jades as: "Qin State during the Warring States Period", "Qin Dynasty", and "Late Warring States Period to Qin Dynasty".

[96] Liang Yun, "°A Preliminary Understanding of the Sacrificial Site of Luanting Mountain"±, China Historical Relics, No. 5, 2005.

[97] According to the Chinese Language: "Jade is the second essence. At that time, jade was used for sacrifices, and it was believed that jade was rich in "essence", that is, "energy".

[98] Fig. 17 quoted from Liu Yunhui, "Han Dynasty Jade Unearthed in Shaanxi", Beijing: Cultural Relics Publishing House, 2009.

[99] Liu Yunhui, "Han Dynasty Jade Unearthed in Shaanxi", Beijing: Cultural Relics Publishing House, 2009.

[100] The author saw it in the exhibition hall of the Shanxi Provincial Museum in 1997.

[101] Excavated scattered items and collected them in the National Palace Museum in Taipei.

[102] Tian Yaqi and Chen Aidong, "°Shaanxi Fengxiang Yongshan Blood Pond Qin and Han Sacrificial Sites"±, 2016 Important Archaeological Discoveries in China, Beijing: Cultural Relics Publishing House, 2017, pp. 88-91. Jade Huang symbolizes the sky, and Fang Cong symbolizes the earth, which was dictated by researcher Tian Yaqi during his speech at Peking University.

[103] You Fuxiang, "°2018 Excavation Harvest of Wushan Sacrificial Site"±, Papers of the Academic Conference on "Sacrifice and Ancient Civilization", Xi'an, 2018. The unearthed jade cong was published in Deng Shuping, "The Exploration of "Six Instruments" and the Speculation of "Cong", Central Plains Cultural Relics, No. 2, 2019.

[104] The Qing Dynasty official compilation of the Imperial Ritual Schema was completed in the 24th year of Qianlong (1759), and the engraved version of Wuyingdian was published in the 33rd year of Qianlong (1768).

[105] Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Dingling Museum, Beijing Municipal Cultural Relics Working Group: Dingling, Beijing: Cultural Relics Publishing House, 1990.

[106] Xia Nai, "°Shang Dynasty Jade Classification, Naming and Use"±, Archaeology, No. 5, 1983; Xia Nai, "Jade in the Han Dynasty: The Continuation and Change of Tradition in Han Dynasty Jade", Journal of Archaeology, No. 2, 1983.

[107] Xia Nai, "°Shang Dynasty Jade Classification, Naming and Use"±, Archaeology, No. 5, 1983.

[108] The Synopsis of the Four Libraries of the King James Dynasty clearly records the Song version and the formation of the Four Libraries.

[109] The concave below the "Mao" depicted in the "New Three Rites" is not an inverted "V" shape, but an inverted "U" shape.

[110] Huang Zhanyue, "°Report on the Excavation of Chengdong District, Hanhenan County, Luoyang in the Spring of 1955"±, Journal of Archaeology, No. 4, 1956.

[111] Luoyang Cultural Relics Working Group, "Excavation Report of Tomb No. 4 in the Western Suburbs of Luoyang"±, Cultural Relics Information Series, No. 9, 1985.

[112] Hayashi Naifu, "Ancient Chinese Sacrifice Jade, Ruiyu", Oriental Journal, vol. 40, 1969. Later, he wrote, "A Study of Ancient Chinese Jade", Tokyo: Yoshikawa Kobunkan, 1991.

[113] Figure 24 quoted from Liu Qingzhu, "Archaeological Discoveries and Research on Tang Dynasty Jade", East Asian Jade, Hong Kong: Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1998.

[114] Xie Mingliang, "°The Change of Cong Bottle"±, Palace Museum Academic Quarterly, Vol. 22, No. 1, 2005, pp. 429-466.