History tells us relentlessly about the catastrophe of climate change. During the long and brutal Xiaoice Age, the two major centers of civilization in the East and West suffered heavy blows at the same time. In the East, a sudden climate change destroyed the foundations of the Ming dynasty, and then the Manchu dynasty came to dominate the Central Plains, and a new dynasty began its reign. In the West, cold and hunger sparked a Thirty Years' War that spread across the continent, and the Habsburg Empire was weakened. How big is the impact of climate change? What did humanity do in response? How did you get through it in the end? Let's explore this turbulent yet fascinating history further.
The fatal blow of the Xiaoice period to the Ming Dynasty
The Xiaoice Age, which had descended on Middle-earth in the early 14th century, dealt a fatal blow to the already precarious Ming Empire. The temperature plummeted, extreme weather continued one after another, the tributaries of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River were often cut off, and the alternation of drought and flood was a constant test of the Ming Dynasty's coping strategy.
As early as 1332, the Yellow River was hit by an unparalleled flood that recorded up to 7 million people. In the following two years, the plague broke out in Hubei, and the two disasters together killed tens of millions of people. This is undoubtedly a serious blow from natural disasters not long after the establishment of the Ming Dynasty.
Even so, during Zhu Yuanzhang's founding rule, there was a brief rise in global temperatures, which greatly increased grain production in the Jiangnan region. However, this respite did not last long, and with the arrival of the 15th century, the temperature began to plummet across the country, and the entire Ming Empire was shrouded in a cold snap.
The extreme weather continued to launch fierce attacks on the Ming Dynasty. The Bohai Sea, Dongting Lake, Poyang Lake, and Taihu Lake all began to freeze all year round, with the Bohai Sea ice reaching a staggering 9 meters at its thickest. It is not uncommon for the Yellow River to burst and cut off its flow, which has greatly impacted the foundation of the people's survival.
Under the ravages of this cold snap, the rice cultivation system in the south of the Yangtze River, which was generally two or three crops a year, no longer existed, and was replaced by only one crop a year. The agricultural areas in the north of the Ming Dynasty had to continue to retreat southward, and the Mongols took the opportunity to penetrate into the Yin Mountains and seize part of the territory that originally belonged to the Ming Dynasty.
The sharp decline in agricultural productivity caused the Ming Dynasty's treasury revenue to plummet. According to records, the annual tax of 7.51 million koku was reduced to less than one-third in the 15th century. Grain reserves were becoming scarce day by day, and grain prices were soaring, which led to the widespread flight of the northern tuntian soldiers, and the frontline guards, which were supposed to be self-sufficient and even exported tribute, began to rely on grain transportation from the interior.
In this harsh environment, the Ming Dynasty in the 15th century broke out three famines that lasted for several years: 1434-1445, 1460-1470, and 1484-1489. "Since spring and summer, the wind has been strong and the sand has flew, and the seedlings planted in the fields have no hope of becoming in autumn...... Thousands of miles west of Pingliang" is a true portrayal of the barren agriculture at that time.
Nurhachi took advantage of the situation and plundered the surrounding resources
As the Ming Dynasty was in decline, a new force was gaining momentum in the Far East. The leader of this force, the Jurchen Houjin, was keenly aware of the devastating impact of climate change on the Ming Dynasty, and took the opportunity to monitor and actively expand his power.
Compared with the Ming Dynasty, Houjin is located on the border, the climatic conditions are more harsh, and the frequent extreme weather has led to a slump in agricultural production. According to historical records, as early as 1627, the Jurchens had already fallen into a food crisis, and even the tragedy of cannibalism. Faced with such a difficult living environment, Nurhachi chose a path of predatory development.
First of all, he set his sights on the economic development of the northern frontier regions. Due to the collapse of the tuntian system in the Ming Dynasty, the productivity of this region fell seriously, which provided an opportunity for the Later Jin to take advantage of. Nurhachi sent his cronies to vigorously expand the economic territory in this region, effectively controlling grain and other production resources.
At the same time, Houjin also strengthened its own military strength. Climate change has led to a depression in agriculture, providing a large number of laborers for the Houjin, and these farmers who have lost their livelihoods have joined the Houjin's army. With the advantage of population, Nurhachi continued to grow his army until he eventually had an elite army of hundreds of thousands.
With the help of both economic and military forces, Nurhachi began to lay siege to the weaknesses of the Ming Dynasty. At that time, due to the decline of national strength, the centralization of power was greatly reduced, and local separatist forces were very uproarious. Houjin took advantage of the weakness to enter and frequently attacked these separatist forces, gradually incorporating them into their own territory.
More critically, Nurhachi also strategically exploited the Ming Dynasty's food crisis due to climate change. He lured the Ming Dynasty border troops to surrender many times, and gave them ample food supplies in return. This is undoubtedly watching the fire from the other side, waiting for the Ming Dynasty to completely worry about internal and external troubles and bring about its own destruction.
Sure enough, years of natural disasters, civil strife, and the military threat of the Later Jin Dynasty finally collapsed the already powerless Ming Dynasty. In 1644, the Later Jin Dynasty captured Beijing, and Li Zicheng seized the Central Plains, and the Ming Dynasty collapsed. After 207 years, the Chinese dynasty finally declined due to climate change, clearing the way for the Later Jin to send troops to the Central Plains.
Europe faces a serious test
At the same time as the Ming Dynasty in the East, the European continent in the West also suffered a heavy blow from the Xiaoice Age. Cold and drought have led to severe crop failures and food shortages, which in turn have led to waves of plagues and social unrest.
As early as 1315, Europe had already begun to enter the cold age of the Xiaoice Age. The following year, France was hit by a devastating famine, and countless peasants were shocked by the horror of starvation. In the decades that followed, the plague spread across the continent like a messenger of Judgment Day.
In 1347, a ship sailed from the Crimean peninsula and brought the deadliest Black Death in human history to Sicily. In just three years, the plague claimed nearly a third of Europe's population. By 1352, the continent's population had plummeted to less than 60 million people.
The Black Death plunged Europe into chaos. The ubiquity of corpses and refugees, combined with the gradual desolation of farmland, led to large-scale riots and social unrest. The feudal lords, who were losing and retreating, were simply unable to cope with such a huge disaster.
It is worth mentioning that the Black Death was not the only plague caused by the Xiaoice Age. Between 1493 and 1670, a series of cold spells triggered at least seven plague epidemics, causing heavy human and economic losses across Europe.
It was in this atmosphere of repression and despair that religious extremism began to flourish in Europe. Some began to target the weaker members of the society in a vain attempt to seek salvation, which eventually led to a massive wave of anti-Semitism.
And the deepening of the religious rift will lay the seeds for the next 30 years of war. The war broke out in 1618 when the Protestant Catholics in Bohemia were suppressed by Catholics. The subsequent additions of the Great Powers quickly spread the war throughout the continent.
The Thirty Years' War brought unprecedented devastation to the German region. One-third of towns and cities have been razed to the ground, and rural areas have suffered even more devastation, with up to 40 per cent of the population lost. There was a proverb at the time that "war turns a village into a desert". The war had brought Europe's economy to a devastation, the centers of industry and commerce were inaccessible, and the once-glorious trade was receded.
Western countries took the lead and started the agricultural revolution
In the face of the food crisis brought about by the Xiaoice Age, Western European countries took effective countermeasures ahead of the Eastern Ming and Qing Dynasties, and finally made breakthroughs in agricultural production.
At that time, European governments realized the importance of agricultural production. In order to increase food production, they first set about introducing some new cold-tolerant crops. Prior to this, the main crops grown on the European continent were few and most of them were thermophiles. Once the temperature plummets, production plummets.
In view of this, the Spaniards introduced cold-tolerant crops such as potatoes and potatoes from South America, which were also harvested in cold climates. The Dutch, on the other hand, introduced wheat and rye, which had long been cultivated in the East, to Europe, and adjusted the planting structure of crops.
In addition to introducing new crops, European countries have introduced a series of agricultural policies that encourage large-scale reclamation of wasteland in rural areas. The most famous example is the enclosure campaign of King Charles II of England in 1660, in which large amounts of public land were divided and sold at very low prices for landlords to set up new farms.
As a result of these policies, the area of new arable land on the continent has expanded dramatically. According to statistics, in the century from 1650 to 1750, England added one-quarter of the arable area, and France added one-fifth. The additional farmland provides more space for food production.
At the same time, improvements in agricultural technology have brought new vitality to food production. Among them, the most important is the crop rotation system and the promotion of the three-nursery system. Through these two technologies, the land can be used rationally and fallow without long-term barrenness.
Thanks to these initiatives, food production on the European continent increased steadily, even during the cold Xiaoice period. By the end of the 17th century, food production in England, France and other countries had more than doubled compared to the 16th century. The increase in agricultural productivity has laid a solid foundation for the coming industrial revolution.
The rapid growth of the population was also a major manifestation of the agricultural transformation during this period. During the Xiaoice Age, Europe suffered a devastating population. But with the help of new crops and new technologies, by the early 18th century, Europe's population had fully recovered to pre-Black Death levels. According to some data, in 1750, the total population of Europe had reached 144 million, exceeding the record high of 1340.
The Qing Dynasty changed for survival
Compared with Europe, which embarked on the road to revival earlier, the Qing Dynasty in the Far East was more passive and conservative in the face of the severe test of the Xiaoice Age. Eventually, however, the Qing government was pressured to implement a series of agricultural reforms in an attempt to alleviate the food crisis.
As early as the Kangxi period, famine had become a frequent problem for the Qing Dynasty. According to historical statistics, in the 135 years from 1661 to 1796, a large-scale natural disaster broke out every four years on average, causing heavy casualties and economic losses.
In order to alleviate the burden of rural labor and improve the production environment, the Qing Dynasty government promulgated the "Regulations on the Relief of Money and Grain" in 1713, announcing a 10-year exemption from the tax on money and grain in rural areas across the country. In addition, the Qing government also opened up a large amount of barren land and encouraged farmers to cultivate their own land.
Even with these responses, the Qing Dynasty suffered a famous "Great Famine" in the mid-18th century. From 1756 to 1765, several years of drought severely affected China's grain production, and tens of millions of people eventually died or were displaced by the failure of officials to prepare for disasters. This undoubtedly gave the Qing government a severe punishment.
Although the climate eased during the Qianlong period, grain production fell into a short-term surplus, but then during the Yongzheng and Jiaqing periods, droughts, floods and other disasters returned. In response to the worsening food crisis, the Qing government finally made a painful decision and implemented a series of reforms:
First of all, it is necessary to comprehensively promote the construction of water conservancy facilities on farmland. To prevent drought, canals, canals and pools were built to irrigate farmland. At the same time, investment has also been increased in the bank protection projects of the Yellow River, the Yangtze River and other major rivers to prevent flooding caused by breaches.
The second is to cultivate early-maturing crops and develop green manure planting. The Qing government actively encouraged farmers to use the autumn and winter months to plant green manure crops after the harvest of staple crops. Green manure can promote selenium enrichment in the soil, which prepares the soil for crop growth in the coming year. At the same time, some new varieties of crops with shorter seasons and cold and drought tolerance have also been selected.
The third is to devote ourselves to changing the production concept of farmers. Since the Jiaqing period, many officials have carried out various propaganda activities to persuade farmers to adjust their traditional production models and use new crop rotation methods and multiple cropping methods to improve land utilization. Officials have also popularized new technologies to strengthen field management, such as irrigation facilities, weeding, fertilization, etc.
After a long period of reform and exploration, by the early 19th century, China's agricultural productivity had increased to a certain extent, and its population had achieved a recovery growth. However, in general, compared with Europe, China's agricultural development is still seriously lagging behind. This eventually led to the invasion of the Western powers and the humiliating fate of the semi-colonies.