Text: Han Shi's words
Edited by Han Shi's words
Preface
The Ottoman Empire was a continent that connected Central Asia and Africa, and commerce flourished, but it was not the Ottoman natives who worked hardest, but some non-Muslims. So how did the Ottomans make them use it for themselves?
The "openness of faith" in the Ottoman Empire
Due to the clash of politics and religion, Catholic countries in Europe forbade Muslim traders to come to their countries to become citizens, while the Ottoman Empire was in a state of hostility with the Shiite Persian Empire.
As a result, non-Muslim merchants, such as Jews, Greeks, and Armenians, became important players in trade between the Ottoman Empire and the Western European and Persian empires. They dominated the Ottoman Empire's export trade and cross-border trade, contributing greatly to the empire's economic prosperity.
In addition to these minority groups, the Ottoman Empire included many other religious beliefs and sects. Islam was the dominant religion in the empire, and Muslims made up the majority of the population. At the same time, the main Christian faiths were Orthodox and Armenian, and there were also a considerable number of Jews in the cities of the empire.
The ethnic and religious diversity of the Ottoman Empire was arguably one of the important factors in its long-term prosperity. Minority groups such as Jews, Greeks, and Armenians played an important role in doing business, contributing greatly to the empire's economic and commercial activities.
The national policy of the Ottoman Empire - the "Millet" system
Millet was a special system in the Ottoman Empire that was used to govern several non-Muslim religious and ethnic groups within the empire. Under this system, non-Muslim groups can form autonomous communities that manage their own internal affairs and are overseen by religious leaders.
The Millet system allowed non-Muslim groups to retain a degree of cultural and religious autonomy under the payment of a poll tax and recognition of the authority of the Ottoman Empire. This system was a response to the diversity of different religions and ethnic groups in the Ottoman Empire, and it also provided a relatively tolerant and peaceful way of coexistence, which allowed the empire to achieve unity and stability in a pluralistic social and cultural landscape.
Similar systems existed in other countries, such as the "religious pluralism" of the Roman Empire and the later "balance of small states" in Europe. However, the Millet system had a very special historical background and significance in the Ottoman Empire.
As an empire that expanded from Central Asia to Europe, the Ottoman Empire created its own unique cultural and political system, of which the Millet system was an important part.
It allowed non-Muslim groups to retain cultural and religious autonomy within the empire, while also providing a relatively tolerant means of imperial rule, reducing the likelihood of religious and ethnic conflicts. However, the system also has problems and limitations in practice, such as the high and unfair poll tax, and its differentiation of ethnic and religious groups.
The existence of the Millet system is significant
The existence of the Millet system is characterized by cultural tolerance, leadership responsibility, internal self-government, the preservation of imperial unity, and the protection and shared prosperity of communities. This system provided opportunities for protection and self-government for non-Muslim groups, while also helping to maintain the unity and stability of the Ottoman Empire.
However, the way in which the Millet system was implemented may have varied at different times and in different regions, and eventually disappeared with the decline of the empire.
An overview of the foreign trade of the Ottoman Empire
In the commercial activities of the Ottoman Empire, non-Muslim merchants played a role that could not be ignored and there were cases of mutual cooperation. Ottoman merchants became involved in international trade by establishing relations with European merchants and sending ships, and not just non-Muslim groups mastered the field.
The Ottoman Empire's international trade was based on its military and political power. By controlling important port cities and maintaining the security of trade routes, the Ottoman Empire was able to secure its international trade interests and reap economic benefits from them.
The arrival of Jewish immigrants played an important role in giving an important boost to the national economy of the Ottoman Empire. Not only did they bring technical and commercial experience, but they also facilitated trade with other countries in the Ottoman Empire. In particular, Jewish merchants from Italy, who mastered advanced commercial techniques such as double-entry accounting, injected new vitality into the commercial activities of the Ottoman Empire.
The economic life of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire was not confined to the commercial sphere. They also play an important role in industries such as crafts, finance, and medicine.
Many Jews were engaged in jewelry and textile manufacturing, and some of these Jewish craftsmen enjoyed prestige and success. Jews also held important positions in the financial sector, providing loans and financial services to merchants and government officials.
The decay of the Jews
Jews made important contributions to the development of the economy during the Golden Age of the Ottoman Empire, bringing technological, capital, and commercial opportunities to the empire, enriching the cultural diversity and economic vitality of the empire.
But Jews were isolated in the Ottoman Empire for a long time, and while legally enjoying the same rights as Muslims, in practice they were often ostracized and hostile. In this state of isolation, it is difficult for them to build identity and good relationships with the group around them. This was one of the main reasons for the decline of Jewish merchants.
The Jewish community was relatively closed and lacked contact with the Western European world. Compared to European Jews, the Jews of the Ottoman Empire were backward in terms of education and intellectual revival and could not count on the support of European merchants and the protection of European states. This was also one of the reasons for the decline of Jewish merchants.
Jewish merchants also fell much less in terms of their competitiveness. Jewish merchants in the early Ottoman Empire succeeded in commerce in part because of their business talent and innovative spirit passed down from generation to generation, as well as their ambition to open up new markets.
But over time, Jews gradually abandoned international trade in favor of low-risk industries or politics, which led to a loss of business talent and a decline in competitiveness. This was one of the important reasons for the decline of Jewish merchants.
Jewish merchants faced competition from other merchant groups such as Greeks and Armenians. These merchant groups also participated in the international trade of the Ottoman Empire and gradually replaced the Jewish merchants in commerce.
The Greeks gained a competitive advantage through excellent seafaring skills and access to government institutions, while the Armenians expanded their influence in commerce through their own efforts. Together, these factors led to a gradual decline in the status of Jewish merchants in commerce.
Greeks in the Ottoman Empire
The Greeks' position and influence in the Ottoman Empire stemmed from their excellent seafaring and shipbuilding skills. The Greeks were scattered throughout the Balkan provinces of the Ottoman Empire and Anatolia, and many wealthy Greek merchants settled in the big cities of Istanbul, Izmir, and Thessaloniki.
The Greeks were more closely connected to the European region, and Greek civilization was one of the sources of European civilization. Since the 18th century, European nationalism has emerged, and the Greeks have begun to question the Millet system and demand autonomy and independence. Greece's independence movement received a broad response in Europe, culminating in independence in 1821. After the war, Greeks from many other regions returned to settle in Greece proper.
Greek merchants declined
In the late eighteenth century, Greek merchants monopolized maritime trade in the Mediterranean, and commercial contacts with Europe gradually deepened. The emergence of the bourgeoisie of Greek merchants gave impetus to the development of the Greek economy. But with the Greek quest for independence and the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence, the position of Greek merchants was significantly affected.
The Greeks suffered resentment and repression from the Ottoman Empire in their quest for independence. Many Greek officials and businessmen in Istanbul lost their privileges and status, and were even executed. After Greece's successful independence, the Ottoman Empire was wary of the Greeks within its borders, believing that they could become a source of domestic instability, and therefore restricted the free trade activities of Greek merchants.
At the same time, the Armenians gradually replaced the Greek merchants within the Ottoman Empire as the most influential group of merchants through their foreign language skills, capital, and trade experience.
By the late nineteenth century, Western powers began to infiltrate the Ottoman Empire, bringing with them new business opportunities and competitors. The arrival of Western merchants and entrepreneurs changed the business landscape and created new challenges for Greek merchants. The intervention of Western powers gradually weakened the influence of Greek merchants.
Greek merchants monopolized seaborne trade in the Mediterranean and maintained close ties with Europe. With the outbreak of the Greek quest for independence and the war of independence, as well as the intervention of Western powers, the status and influence of Greek merchants within the Ottoman Empire changed.
They faced restrictions from the Ottoman Empire and competition from the Armenians, as well as new challenges from Western merchants. Together, these factors led to the decline of Greek merchants in the Ottoman Empire.
The rise of Armenians in the business sector
Armenians have been living on the Armenian plateau since the 16th century BC and have been subjected to foreign domination many times throughout history. Under Ottoman rule, the Armenians were overwhelmingly Gregorian Christians and played an important role in a variety of occupations permitted by Islamic law, engaging in a variety of trade and industrial activities.
They were known for their commercial activities, and during the Middle Ages they were mainly engaged in currency exchange, gold jewellery, jewelry, foreign trade, construction, medicine and theater, and were highly adaptable.
The Armenian merchant community itself engaged in transnational and intercontinental trade between Eurasia, creating efficient and successful long-distance trade and establishing strong commercial networks with strong ties to the Novojufa region, their main commercial center.
They are one of the oldest businessmen in the world with excellent business acumen and an enterprising spirit. Historically, the Armenians excelled in the economic, commercial, and cultural spheres of the Ottoman Empire, alongside the Jews and Greeks, who were rivals at the time.
The decline of Armenian merchants
The decline of the Armenian commercial network after the mid-eighteenth century was mainly influenced by the global competition for colonies, raw material sources and sales markets by the European powers, and the rise of the capitalist world market dominated by the European powers.
This caused Armenian merchants to lose their dominant position in global trade and were unable to compete with European merchants. Eventually, many Armenian communities disappeared, but some businessmen opted for the transition and invested in factories of a capitalist nature or in emerging industrial capitalist companies.
epilogue
Non-Muslim merchants played an important role in the economic development and social life of the Ottoman Empire. They brought goods from all over the world to the empire, contributing to the economic development of the Ottoman Empire. They played a role as a bridge between the East and the West, and played a significant role in the exchanges between the Ottoman Empire and European society.