#大地之旅四川乐山#
The Confucian view of the body focuses on the realization of the unity of body and mind, which conflicts with the Buddhist concept of figurative representation of the body, which affects the physical form of Buddhist statues from the Sixteen Kingdoms to the Northern Dynasties, during which the changes in the physical shape of the Buddhist protectors profoundly record the understanding and practice of the body by craftsmen at that time. The face of the earlier Dharma Protector figure is the focus of the model, and the body is equivalent to the Buddha and Bodhisattva of the same period, all of which are subtle and flat. During the Northern Qi Dynasty, the image-makers had a preliminary depiction of the undulating relationship and muscle structure of the Dharma Protector, and this understanding did not mature until the early Tang Dynasty, and the facial expression and body structure were more powerfully presented, especially the muscular form satisfied the viewer's subjective imagination of the Lux, and thus established the basic modeling characteristics of the later Dharma Protector.
Zhuangzi's statement in "The Theory of Qi Things" that "heaven and earth are born with me, and all things are one with me", which is a positive expression of the idea of "the unity of heaven and man", which clearly reveals the subjective adaptation of the human body to the external world and respect for life. The ancients paid attention to the "unity of body and mind" of self-understanding, and actually regarded the body as a community of body and mind, which is almost the consensus of scholars. The above propositions are all contemplations of the human body, but this contemplation is mostly discussed at the philosophical and aesthetic levels, and rarely makes a difference in artistic expression, which may be related to the tradition of the pre-Qin period not taking the human body as the main object of expression and not paying attention to the objective realism of the human body [1]. On the one hand, people pay attention to the blooming and realization of the flesh in the course of life; On the other hand, it avoids the reappearance of the physical form in another world after the end of the life course.
In the question of life and death and the discussion of the philosophy of the body, people's representation of the flesh is mostly in a more abstract expression, rather than scientific practice based on anatomy, nor can it be guided by figuration and materialization at the artistic level, and its theoretical construction is obviously different from the Buddhist image making practice with the nature of idolatry. Large-scale naked flesh and the Protector of the Spell Protector who showed the value of force paid more attention to the bravado of expression and the expression of human muscles, which contrasted with the subtle and smooth modeling characteristics of the characters when shaping the body since the Qin and Han dynasties. Therefore, the perfect combination of the Dharma Protector's flamboyant dynamics, brave expressions, and sturdy muscles can truly realize the face and subjective expression of the body.
This article focuses on the analysis of the physical modeling characteristics of Dharma Protectors in Buddhist cave statues, discusses the evolution of their shape in the process of localization, and how it became a mature art form in the Tang Dynasty and beyond.
1. Vajra as the protector of Buddhism
In the relief story of the Gandhara Buddha, the god Vajra, who is the Buddha's personal protector, is an important character, and his image is bare upper body, thick hair, deep eyes, high nose, and muscular. Some researchers have pointed out that there are multiple sources of Vajrasiles, among which the characteristics of Hercules, the ancient Greek god Hercules, are the most prominent, and many researchers have also participated in this topic, emphasizing that the god Vajra in Gandhara Buddhist art is derived from Hercules in ancient Greece [3]. Hercules' evolution from Hercules to Buddhist protector was an important theme in the cultural exchanges between East and West along the Silk Roads.
In Gandhara Buddhist art, the god Vajra first appears in the Buddhist story of Shakya Prince Yucheng becoming a monk. Prince's enlistment to the city was the beginning of his decision to embark on the path of cultivation and break with his previous aristocratic life (prince), a scene that is repeated in the Gandhara Buddha story. A relief of the Kushan dynasty monks (Fig. 1) unearthed in Loliatan shows the scene of Prince Shakya passing through the city in the middle of the night, in which the horse rider is the protagonist of the story, Prince Shakya, the four hooves of the horse are held up by Lux, the front of the horse is the emperor Shitian holding a bow and arrow and Brahma holding a fist in both hands, the front and upper part of the horse is a celestial man with a canopy, and the top of the horse is a vajra god holding a vajra pestle with a shirtless upper body and holding a vajra pestle, and the whole picture is full of solemn and sacred atmosphere.
Figure 1 ˉ Rolyatangai excavated relief of the Kushan dynasty
The god Vajra is so important in Gandhara art, but after Buddhist art was introduced to ancient China, his figure was rare. Cave 169 of the Yongjing Bingling Temple Grottoes has an inscription on the first year of Jianhong of the Western Qin Dynasty (420), which is considered to be the earliest Buddhist cave in China, and in the clay statue of the No. 3 niche on the north wall of the cave, the main statue is a seated Buddha with a shoulder-mounted cassock, the left (based on the object itself, the same below) is a protector wearing a crown and armor (Fig. 2), and the right flank attendant is a bodhisattva costumed with a bare upper body. For the identification of Zuowaki statue Zunge, some scholars believe that it is Emperor Shitian[4], and Professor Li Jingjie believes that it is the god of Vajra[5], which is mainly based on the image of binding hair, beards, and holding a vajra pestle, but the folds at the chin seem to be folds bitten out of teeth to show fierceness, not beards. In addition, there are also instances of Di Shitian holding a vajra pestle. The most important thing is that the god of Vajra generally appears as a samurai with a bare upper body and muscles, and the statue is wrapped in armor and has a cloak, and has a kingly style, so the dignity of the statue is not similar to that of the god Vajra, but should be the protector of the heavenly king or the emperor Shitian.
Figure 2 ˉ Statue of the Heavenly King of the Northern Wei Protector of the Northern Wei Dynasty, No. 3 on the North Wall of Cave 169 of the Bingling Temple Grottoes of Yongjing (from the Gansu Provincial Cultural Relics Task Force and the Bingling Temple Cultural Relics Depository, "Chinese Grottoes, Yongjing Bingling Temple", plate 62)
Cave 6 of the Yungang Grottoes in Datong has a wealth of reliefs of Buddhist stories, and researchers have identified as many as 36,[6] of which the existence of the god Vajra is not found in the 26th picture of the Buddha passing through the city in the middle of the night and beyond. However, the Yungang Grottoes are carved with a large number of protector gods with the eight parts of the Heavenly Dragon as the main content, which are the omnipresent and invincible cosmic symbols of Buddhism.[7] Among them, the identity of the protectors carved on both sides of the cave door and the statue niche should be the protector king and the protector, who are an important existence in the cave statue combination, and are also the early form of the combination of the later protector and protector.
2. Datong Yungang Grottoes Cave Protector of the Cave Niche in the middle of the Northern Wei Dynasty
The central pillar of Cave 6 of Datong Yungang Grottoes is divided into two floors, of which the lower floor is opened on all sides, and the niche is a duplex structure with two inner and outer floors, full of high relief statues. The lower layer of the center pillar is carved with the main statue in the middle of the inner niche on all four sides, and the two sides show the disciple and the waki bodhisattva (the main statue on the north side of the center pillar is the two Buddhas sitting together, and the two sides are not carved disciples and the waki bodhisattva), and the outer walls of the inner niche are carved with protectors; The inner walls of the four outer niches on the lower level of the central pillar are all depicted with images of bodhisattvas, and the outer walls of the outer niche are carved with a bodhisattva and a protector (Fig. 3). This complex combination of statues has not been seen in the previous cave niches, which shows the importance that the cave attaches to the protector. For the identification of these protectors, there are generally different titles such as Dharma Protector Heavenly King, Vajra Lux and Yasha Lux, but in terms of their external image, they can be divided into two categories: one is the one who wears a winged crown on his head and has a relatively elegant face; The other type is bun with furrow or curly hair, and the face is rougher. The common feature of both types of Dharma Protectors is the shawl hanging down from the shoulders, the ends of which intersect in an X-shape on the abdomen and draped over the opposite elbow, and its styling features are consistent with those of the Bodhisattva Costume of the Caves in the latter stage of the Yungang Grottoes [8]. The Protector is bare and partially structured, and no obvious muscle ups and downs can be seen.
Figure 3 ˉ Image configuration diagram of the lower niche of the central column of Cave 6 of Yungang Grottoes (drawn by the author)
Among the two types of Dharma Protector statues in the four niches on the lower floor of the central pillar of Cave 6 of Yungang Grottoes, the dignity of the person wearing the winged crown should be the Dharma Protector (discussed in another article), while the Dharma protector with a furrow or curly bun should be a Dharma Protector. Take the Protector on the left side of the outer niche on the north side of the lower niche of Cave 6 in Cave 6 of Yungang Grottoes as an example (Fig. 4), the image has curly hair, a square face, erect eyebrows, round eyes, a slight smile at the corners of the mouth, and a beard carved into the black line of the chin; With your hands folded, your hips cocked to the left back, the center of gravity on your left leg, and your right leg raised to the right front. The protector on the right side of the outer wall of the same niche (Fig. 5-1, Fig. 5-2), has a furrowed head, a plump face, a high nose and deep eyes, a smile at the corners of the mouth, an uncarved beard on the chin, and other features are the same as the protector on the left side (the dynamics are mirror symmetrical with the latter). The figure and clothing of this protector are obviously different from the topless Vajra god in Gandhara art mentioned above, and are also clearly different from the armor-wearing Dharma Protector Heavenly King (Emperor Shi Tian) in Cave 169 of Bingling Temple Grottoes, but the curly hair or furrow-like bun is similar to that of the Vajra god [9]. This kind of figure with curly or furrow-like hair and a strong body exists in large numbers in the Yungang Grottoes, such as some of the celestial beings who worship the Buddha, the demons in the flying sky, the demons in the scene of demonic enlightenment, and the load-bearing warriors under the pedestal. However, in contrast, the identity of the protector who is located on either side of the statue niche of the central pillar and in combination with the Bodhisattva is more important, and there is an intrinsic relationship with the later protectors on both sides of the shrine or cave door, which can be regarded as an early form of the latter. Therefore, it should be possible to treat the curly or furrow-like protector on both sides of the cave door and the statue niche in the Yungang Grottoes as a protector.
Figure 4 ˉ The lower left side of the lower niche on the north side of the central pillar of Cave 6 of Yungang Grottoes (from Zhang Zhuo's "The Complete Works of Yungang Grottoes", Volume 3, plate 156)
Figure 5-1 ˉ Northern Wei Protector on the lower right side of the lower niche on the north side of the central pillar of Cave 6 of Yungang Grottoes (from Zhang Zhuo's "The Complete Works of Yungang Grottoes" Volume 3, plate 155)
Figure 5-2 ˉ Naked figure of the Northern Wei Protector on the lower right side of the lower niche on the north side of the central pillar of Cave 6 of Yungang Grottoes
The position of the Dharma Protectors in the lower niche of the central pillar of Cave 6 of Yungang Grottoes is not fixed, for example, the Dharma Protectors on the south side of the lower level of the central column are carved on both sides of the outer wall of the outer niche, and the other three sides are represented on both sides of the outer wall of the inner niche, but they are all combined with or adjacent to the Bodhisattva Waki. This combination of Dharma Protector and Waki Gong Bodhisattva can remind people of the above-mentioned Waki Attendant statues on both sides of the seated statue of the Lord Buddha in the 3rd niche on the north wall of the Yongjing Bingling Temple Grottoes, but obviously different from the Bingling Temple Grotto example, the lower layer of the central pillar of Yungang Grottoes has both armor-piercing protectors and waki bodhisattva combinations, and shirtless warriors and waki bodhisattva combinations, which shows that in the Yungang caves of the middle of the Northern Wei Dynasty, there is a certain degree of arbitrariness in the craftsman's understanding of Dharma protectors and Dharma protectors.
The facial features of the Dharma Protectors on both sides of the four-sided statue niche on the lower floor of the central pillar of Cave 6 of Yungang Grottoes are different, and the unified feature is that the face is full and smiling, as if he is happy to hear the Buddha's teachings; The upper body is bare, the lower body is dressed in a skirt, there is a shawl, the body is quite strong, but there is no obvious muscle undulation, and the overall shape characteristics are equivalent to the Bodhisattva who made the statue niche. From the author's naked figure of the Dharma Protector of the Yungang Grottoes (Figure 5-2), it can be seen that the physical body structure of the Dharma Protector in this period is similar to that of the Western Han nude figurines unearthed in the Hanyang Mausoleum in Xianyang City (Figure 6), both of which focus on facial shaping, smooth and subtle bodies, and lack clear body undulation relationships, which are clearly different from the figurative realism traditions of ancient Greece and Rome. It can be seen that from the early Western Han Dynasty to the heyday of the excavation of the Yungang Grottoes, the understanding and shaping of the body structure of the characters by local craftsmen did not develop substantially.
Figure 6 ˉ Xianyang Hanyang Mausoleum unearthed Western Han nude figurines ˉ Hanyang Mausoleum Museum collection
The Dharma Protector on the left side of the left niche on the 5th floor on the east side of the south wall of Cave 13 of Yungang Grottoes (Picture 7), wearing a lion's head helmet, a plump face, curved eyebrows and trimmed eyes, and a smile at the corners of his mouth; Bare upper body, holding the tip of a club-like weapon in his left hand, his right hand stretched out to the right front, draped over his shoulders with a cape-like ornament in the shape of animal legs, a short skirt tied around his waist, and his legs crouched to the sides. This costume is undoubtedly Hercules, the god Hercules in ancient Greek mythology, who is supposed to be one of the protectors of Buddhism. The right-hand protector[10] corresponding to the Hercules Protector, showing tall hair in a bun, simple facial features, bare upper body, left hand holding a forked weapon, right hand fist placed on the waist, chest with simple chest ornaments, also showing a shawl, short skirt, legs squatting to the sides. It can be seen that the human body structure of the two protector gods is still that rough and conceptual form, and does not show a credible muscle structure.
Figure 7 ˉ On the east side of the south wall of Cave 13 of Yungang Grottoes, on the left niche of the 5th floor, row 2, left niche of the Northern Wei Protector, Hercules (from Zhang Zhuo's ed., The Complete Works of the Yungang Grottoes, Volume 11, plate 205)
It can be seen that when representing the statue of the protector in the Yungang Grottoes, there are multiple ways of expression, and the position is not fixed, but the understanding of the physical structure of the character is highly unified.
3. Protectors of the late Northern Wei Dynasty
After Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei moved the capital to Luoyang, he continued to promote the cause of opening caves and statues in the Longmen Grottoes, and the Binyang Middle Cave excavated during this period was the highest specification in the Northern Wei cave group of Longmen Grottoes. Longmen Grottoes Binyang Middle Cave is the only cave in Binyang Three Caves completed in the late Northern Wei Dynasty, and the main Buddha statue on the west wall (main wall) of the cave has some new styling features, such as the clothing form expressed by the superposition of two layers of cassocks, the new structure of the belt, the new style of covering the suspension, etc., all of which are a direct embodiment of the highest level of royal cave statues [11]. Two tall Protectors appeared outside the cave door, merging into the entire cave structure. The Protectors on both sides of the cave door participated in the entire composition of the statues, which was a major change from the previous image composition of the Yungang Grottoes.
Of the two Protectors on both sides of the outer wall of the cave gate in the Longmen Grottoes, only the Protector on the left is better preserved (Figure 8). The statue wears a barrel-shaped crown, with a square face, raised eyebrows, round eyes, a damaged nose, and flat lips; The chest seems to have a chest ornament, the lower body is dressed in a skirt, the left hand holds a stick-like magic weapon, the right hand is raised on the chest, and the five fingers are open, and the lines of the finger joints can be seen. The shawl at Lux's shoulders has sharp corners that rise outwards and is decorative, with the sagging ends crossed in an X shape between the legs, and then draped over the elbow of the opposite arm before hanging down. The sculptural features of the Lux Shawl are no different from those of the Bodhisattvas of the same period. The face of this tall statue of Lux is quite "skinny", which is obviously different from the plump and plump shape of the Protector Lux seen on the lower floor of the central pillar of Cave 6 of Yungang Grottoes before, but the body is also not carved with undulating muscle structure. It is worth noting that the stick-like magic weapon held by Lux in his left hand on the outer wall of the cave door in Binyang Zhong has a thick end and a simple lotus-petal-shaped ornament, which should be a localized reproduction of the vajra pestle in the hand of the god of Vajra.
Figure 8 ˉ Luoyang Longmen Grottoes Binyang Middle Cave Gate Outer Wall on the left side of the Northern Wei Protector Warrior
The clothing form of the main Buddha sitting statue on the central pillar of Cave 1 of Gongyi Grottoes is consistent with the statue style and the Buddha sitting statue on the main wall of Binyang Middle Cave, and belongs to the same royal statue style; Both caves represent a magnificent relief of the "Emperor and Emperor Buddha Picture", and a tall protector is carved on the outer wall of the cave door, which shows that the two are intrinsically related in the form and image configuration of the cave.
Gongyi Grottoes Cave 1 Cave Gate on the left side of the outer wall of the Lux is relatively well preserved (Figure 9). The Lux wears a barrel-shaped crown on his head, with a square face, round eyes, and damaged nose bones to chin; The lower body is dressed in a skirt, with a belt, and the belt is knotted, similar to the belt of the Yungang Grottoes wearing a belt-style cassock Buddha statue. Lux's left hand is crippled, but you can see the stick-like magic weapon on the outside of the left waist to the pedestal, the two ends of the magic weapon are pointed and thick, and then slightly contracted, and the middle part is carved with a lotus petal pattern, which is undoubtedly a vajra pestle, and its modeling feature is the development form of the magic weapon held by the Dharma Protector on the left outside the cave gate of the Longmen Grotto. The shawl draped by Lux's shoulders is crossed into an X shape after the abdomen is looped, and then draped over the elbow of the opposite arm and then lowered. On the whole, in addition to the shape of the head, some of the characteristics of this statue are similar to the statues of bodhisattvas in the late Northern Wei period.
Figure 9 ˉ The Northern Wei Protector on the left side of the outer wall of the door of Cave 1 of the Gongyi Grottoes
Cave 435 of the Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes was excavated in the Northern Wei Dynasty, and the east side of the central pillar of the cave depicts the Dharma Protector, which is the earliest surviving statue of the Dharma Protector in the area. The main Buddha statue in the east-facing niche of the central pillar of the cave is a sitting position, covered with a half-draped cassock on the right shoulder and a monk's branch inside, and the sculpture pattern of the cassock is carved with convex edges. It can be seen that this Buddha statue combines the modeling characteristics of Gandhara and Hexi statues. Unlike the main Buddha statue, the Dharma Protectors on both sides have a distinct eastward element. Taking the left (north side) of the east-facing niche of the central column as an example (Fig. 10), the image has a damaged bun on the head, the facial features are quite hideous, the eyebrow arch stands up in an inverted figure eight to the sides, the eyes are round and bulging forward, the nostrils are also wide open, the cheekbones are prominent, the lips are thin, and the teeth are slightly exposed; The muscles at the neck bulge and stretch are extremely exaggerated, and the structure of the collarbone is also striking. Lux has a bare upper body, a skirt below, a thin and flat chest, and a slightly inflated biceps on his right arm. The shawl hanging from the shoulders is crossed into an X shape on the abdomen and then draped over the elbow of the opposite arm, covering the shoulders in a wide and outwardly upturned shape, which is highly similar to the mantle of the Protector on the left side of the outer wall of the cave gate in Binyangzhong of the Longmen Grottoes. The form of clothing of this protector is not coordinated with the main Buddha statue, which is an exotic form before the costume of Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei, while the shawl on Lux is a Han-style bodhisattva costume feature that appeared after the costume reform.
Figure 10 ˉ Northern Wei Protector on the north side of the east-facing niche of the central pillar of Cave 435 of Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes (from Liu Yongzeng's ed., The Complete Collection of Dunhuang Grottoes and Statue Volume, Commercial Press, 2003, plate 22)
The Lord of the 125th Shrine of the Bingling Temple Grottoes in Yongjing is a seated statue of two Buddhas[12], both dressed in clothed cassocks, with obvious characteristics of beautiful bones and clear images, and attention is paid to the performance of covering the suspension, which can be seen to be dated to the late Northern Wei Dynasty near Western Wei. The lower right corner of the niche still has a bas-relief protector (Fig. 11), which is small in size and relatively rough in carving, and should have been engraved after the completion of the main niche. The head of the statue is tied with a bun, and the facial features are close to the Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes Cave 435 on the left side of the east-facing niche, but the clothes on the body are similar to the Protectors on the left side of the outer wall of the Gongyi Grottoes Cave 4, but the carving skills are much poorer, and the flesh is even more shriveled and flat. These characteristics illustrate the strong influence formed by the Dharma Protector on the surrounding and Hexi areas of the cave niche since the appearance of the Dharma Protector on the outer wall of the cave gate in Binyangzhong Longmen Grottoes.
Figure 11 ˉ Bingling Temple Grottoes No. 125 Northern Wei Protector (from Zheng Binglin, ed., Silk Road Grottoes Series, Bingling Temple Grottoes, Northern Dynasties to Sui, Anhui Fine Arts Publishing House, 2021, plate 3-13)
In the northern dynasty cave niche of Maijishan Grottoes, there are still many unique Northern Dynasty protectors, and their modeling characteristics are not very uniform.
The Protector of the Magic Warrior on the left wall of Cave 126 of Maijishan Grottoes (Fig. 12), who seems to wear a small crown on his head, has a long round face, and has a certain diffuse face, but he can see that Lux's facial features are more fierce, his eyebrows are round, the corners of his mouth are smiling, and the bulging muscle bundles at his neck are particularly obvious. Lux did not hold objects in his hands, wore crotch armor on his chest, and a long skirt with wide sleeves, the crotch armor of which was a common attire in the Northern Dynasty, and terracotta figurines wearing crotch armor were often unearthed in Northern Dynasty tombs. The appearance of this costumed protector in the cave is supposed to introduce the actual warrior into the cave for the purpose of guarding, in fact, this is to transform the foreign protector into a traditional door god [13].
Figure 12 ˉ Tianshui Maijishan Grottoes, Cave 126, Cave 126, Northern Wei Protector (Photo by Sun Yuan)
The Dharma Protector on the right wall of Cave 112 of Maijishan Grottoes (Fig. 13), with hair tied on the top of his head, thin face, round eyebrows, fierce facial features, and obvious twisting and stretching of muscle bundles on his neck; The upper body is bare, there are no ornaments on the chest and abdomen, and there is no undulating muscle structure. The shawl hanging down from Lux's shoulders does not intersect in an X shape on the abdomen as in the above example, but hangs naturally along the inside of the arm, which appears more casual; The lower body is dressed in a skirt, and the shape of the belt after the knots is similar to the belt of the late Northern Wei Dynasty Shawl-style cassock Buddha statue. The most distinctive feature of this Protector is that he looks back at the mouth of the cave, as if wary of the evil intentions of those entering the cave. From the strong twisting relationship between the head and the torso, it can be seen that the craftsman has devoted a lot of effort to the head and neck structure above the chest, but has little interest in expressing the body structure of the trunk, and the latter feature is basically the same as the shape concept of the Buddha statue and the bodhisattva statue body in the cave niche at the same time.
Figure 13 ˉ The right wall of Cave 112 of Tianshui Maijishan Grottoes of Northern Wei Protector (Photo by Sun Yuan)
4. Northern Qi, Northern Zhou to Sui Dynasty Protectors
The Xiangtangshan Grottoes in Handan were excavated in the later Eastern Wei Dynasty,[14] and the carved jingdong (Cave 3, also known as the Southern Cave) was completed in the early Northern Qi Dynasty, and the east wall of the front porch of the cave is carved with a protector on both sides, unfortunately both statues have missing heads and hands. Among them, the Dharma Protector on the left side of the east wall of the front porch of the carved cave (Fig. 14), with chest ornaments, bare upper body, lower body wearing skirts, shawls hanging from the shoulders, intersecting on the abdomen and knotted to form an X shape, and then draped to the opposite side of the arm and then hanging, its basic structure is similar to the above-mentioned Longmen Grottoes and Gongyi Grottoes on both sides of the Dharma Protectors, the difference is that the Xiangtangshan Grottoes are dressed closely to the body, the pleats are extremely refined, and the expression of decorative meanings is emphasized, such as the belt hanging down to form a delicate flower knot between the legs. It contrasts with the loose and smooth pleats. The distinctive feature of the statue is that the body is extremely strong, which is consistent with the shape of the Buddha statue in the Northern Qi Dynasty, both of which are full and plump for beauty, in which the chest has a more obvious bulge to show the presence of the pectoralis major muscle, which indicates that the period has initially had the consciousness of expressing muscle ups and downs, but the overall structure of Lux is still a subtle, sluggish modeling feature, and there are no muscle depiction details.
Figure 14 ˉ Northern Qi Protector on the left side of the east wall of the front porch of the Xiangtangshan Grottoes in Handan (from the Fengfeng Mining Area Cultural Relics Depository, University of Chicago Center for East Asian Art: "Beixiangtang Grottoes Carved Scripture Cave - Archaeological Report of Caves 1, 2 and 3 in the Southern District", Cultural Relics Press, 2013, plate 38)
The Anyang Xiaonanhai Grottoes were excavated during the Tianbao period of Northern Qi (550-559), and there are three caves[15], of which the middle cave has a statue of a protector carved on each side of the cave gate, and the surface is diffuse. The Dharma Protector (Fig. 15) on the left side of the cave door in the Xiaonanhai Grottoes, with his face damaged and his hands unable to see details, can be recognized as having a chest ornament, shirtless upper body, lower skirt, and the shawl hanging down from both shoulders does not intersect at the abdomen, but hangs down on both sides of the crotch like the above-mentioned Dharma Protector on the right wall of Cave 112 of Maijishan Grottoes. The slender and soft shape of the torso is combined with the twisting crotch to create a soft contour and soft visual appearance, a shape feature not common in the caves of the late Northern Dynasty, presumably influenced by the new Indian Gupta dynasty statues.
Figure 15 ˉ Anyang Xiaonanhai Grotto Cave Gate Left Wall Northern Qi Protector Warrior
A similar example to the Dharma Protectors on both sides of the cave door in the Xiaonanhai Grottoes can be found in the Northern Qi gilded bronze Dharma Protectors excavated in Shouyang County, Shanxi Province (Fig. 16), and the two have a highly similar understanding of the body and the expression of clothing, although the latter can see more details of the body and clothing because it is a round carved statue. The gilded bronze protector wears a petal-shaped crown with ribbons on both sides of the crown, a long and round face, standing eyebrows, square lips and a wide mouth, and a beard on the chin; bare upper body, with chest ornament, slightly raised chest, and a pronounced contraction band between it and the abdomen, forming a clear structural relationship; The drapery, which hangs from the shoulders, flutters only on the sides of the body; Wearing a skirt and a belt, he stood on a pedestal. Relatively speaking, the arms of this protector are quite strong, especially the upper arm is not only thick, but also has an oval female line carving on it to show the structural form of the upper arm biceps, but this modeling concept is still in a preliminary stage of experimentation.
Figure 16 ˉ Northern Qi gilded bronze protector unearthed in Shouyang County, Shanxi Province Collection of Shanxi Museum (from Zhejiang Provincial Museum, ed. "Buddha Shadow Lingqi - Golden and Bronze Statues of Buddhism from the Sixteen Kingdoms to the Five Dynasties", Cultural Relics Publishing House, 2018, plate 101)
Cave 427 of the Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang was excavated for the Sui Dynasty, and a statue of a protector is carved on each side of the cave door, and on the inside of it stands a heavenly king who steps on a little ghost. The statues in the cave are relatively well preserved, and a combination of Dharma Protectors and Heavenly Kings with clear characteristics has appeared, forming a layered sense of Dharma Protector echelons, which is a combination of images that has never been seen in caves before.
Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes Cave 427 Cave 427 North Wall Protector (Fig. 17), wearing a beard-shaped crown on his head, a square face, standing eyebrows and round eyes, a slightly open mouth, and a slightly smiling expression in the fierceness, which is very vivid. Features such as the Adam's apple and sternocleidomastoid muscle on Lux's neck are clearly distinguishable. It has a chest ornament, bare upper body, a pronounced bulge of the chest, and a protruding abdomen. Lux lifts his right hand to his chest and can see the bulging biceps muscle on the inside of the upper arm and the brachioradial muscle in the forearm, which is the most obvious muscle tissue in the arm. The shawl hanging from the shoulders of Lux is draped over the opposite arm through the abdomen and thighs, and then dances in an S-shape at the sides of the body. Lux is dressed in a skirt and stands on a cloud-like pedestal, and you can see the small muscle bundles connecting the toes on the back of the foot. Relatively speaking, the expression of the inner protector of Lux is more restrained, and the relationship between muscle ups and downs tends to be subtle and smooth. It can be seen that the Dharma Protector on the north wall of the front room of Cave 427 of Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes, its dignity, position in the cave and shape characteristics are much clearer than the previous cave protectors, which is a great change, which has a profound impact on the performance of the subsequent Dharma Protector statue and the combination of cave images.
Figure 17 ˉ Sui Protector on the north wall of the front room of Cave 427 of Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes (from Liu Yongzeng's "The Complete Works of Dunhuang Grottoes and Statue Volumes", plate 89)
From the above discussion, it can be seen that in the Sui Dynasty, the basic modeling characteristics of the statues of Dharma Protectors in the cave niches tended to be stable, all dressed in bodhisattva clothing, fierce facial features, exaggerated eyebrows, thick and significant muscles on the neck, began to pay attention to the structural performance of the chest and abdomen, and the biceps muscles of the upper arm were also reflected to a certain extent.
5. Tang Dynasty Dharma Protector
Luoyang Longmen Grottoes Binyang South Cave, as one of the three caves of Longmen Binyang, was founded in the early years of the Jingming Dynasty of Northern Wei, but the main statues, including the main wall, were not completed as planned. Emperor Taizong of Tang's fourth son, Li Tai the Prince of Wei, recommended his mother Empress Wende to chisel the statue on the front wall of Binyang Nandong, dated to the fifteenth year of Tang Zhenguan (641).[16] The Dharma Protector on the north side of the front wall of Binyang South Cave (Fig. 18), according to the inscription, was completed in the first year of Tang Yonghui (650)[17], with a severely damaged head and a bare upper body, and the raised structure of the chest and abdomen can be seen; The shawl draped from the shoulders, the ends of which are draped over the opposite arm through the abdomen and the base of the thighs, forming two large U-shapes, this form of shawl has appeared on the above-mentioned Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes Cave 427 front room protector, and also has a positive expression on the left side of the main wall of the same cave [18], and is widely popular in the statue of the Bodhisattva in the Tang Dynasty cave of Longmen Grottoes. The Protector is damaged except for the left chest, and the surface is severely diffused, but the physical features of the body can still be identified, which are consistent with the physical performance of the Sui Dynasty Protector in the front room of Cave 427 of the Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang.
Figure 18 ˉ Luoyang Longmen Grottoes, Tang Protectors on the north side of the front wall of Binyang South Cave (from Longmen Cultural Relics Depository and Department of Archaeology, Peking University, ed. "Chinese Grottoes, Longmen Grottoes II", plate 27)
The Great Buddha Cave of Guangyuan Huangze Temple was excavated in the early Tang Dynasty [19], and the statues in the cave inherit some characteristics of the Northern Dynasty and Sui Dynasty statues to varying degrees, and the right side of the cave is a protector (Figure 19), the head facial features are not present, and the body is more serious, but the basic modeling characteristics can still be seen: the bare upper body can see its slightly bulging muscle structure; The chest has a richly carved chest ornament, and the lower body is dressed, and the waist is tied with a belt, and the belt hangs down to form a delicate knot between the legs; The clothes are close-fitting, the pleats are finely carved, and the overall styling style is consistent with the statue of the main figure.
Figure 19 ˉ Tang Protector on the right side of the Great Buddha Cave of Guangyuan Huangze Temple
The Longmen Grottoes Jingshan Temple was completed around the time of Tang Longshuo (661-663)[20], and was completed later than Binyang Nandong, and the Dharma Protectors on the outer wall of the cave gate have changed significantly from the latter. Taking the Protector on the left as an example (Fig. 20), the statue wears a low crown, a square face, a raised eyebrow arch, round eyes, a certain diffuse nose and mouth, and the overall facial structure is carved in detail and authentic. The relationship between the Adam's apple, muscle bundle and collarbone on Lux's neck is clearly distinguishable, but it is obviously more restrained and subtle than the above-mentioned protector of the north wall of Cave 427 of the Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes. Lux is bare-bodied, with a gorgeous chest ornament carved from beads and gemstones, and a yingluo hanging down from the shoulders, the two ends of the yingluo intersect on the abdomen in a round ornament, and then hang down to the outside of the thighs, forming a large X shape on the front of the body. The structure of the Lux thoracic cavity is clear, and the relationship between its lower edge and the abdomen is also very clear, the raised pectoralis major muscle is attached to the chest cavity, and the structure at the sternum peduncle is artificially carved into a curved step, which intersects with the muscle bundle of the pectoralis major muscle, forming a tense visual relationship. The deltoid muscle at the upper end of Lux's arms is thick, the biceps are carved into a lotus-like oval, and the structural relationship between the brachioradial muscle and the palmar muscle group on the forearm is also clearly distinguishable, among which the relationship between the deltoid muscle and the biceps brachii is basically consistent with the real human anatomy. These modeling features show that the craftsman's understanding and representation of the human body at that time surpassed previous examples, and the degree of figurative realism reached a new level.
Figure 20 ˉ Luoyang Longmen Grottoes Jingshan Temple Cave Gate Outer Protector (from Longmen Cultural Relics Depository, Department of Archaeology, Peking University, ed. "Chinese Grottoes, Longmen Grottoes II", plate 35)
Among the Tang Dynasty cave niches of Longmen Grottoes, the statue of Fengxian Temple is the most important and represents the highest level of carving at that time. Fengxian Temple was excavated under the auspices of Emperor Gaozong of Tang and completed in the second year of Emperor Gaozong of Tang (675). The Dharma Protector on the left wall of Fengxian Temple stands on the outside of the Dharma Protector (Fig. 21), his head is twisted to the left front, he wears a low crown, his face is square, his eyebrows are raised, his eyes are round, his mouth is open and seems to be roaring, there are ears on his earlobes, and the entire facial facial features are carved very deeply and three-dimensionally. The structural relationship between the muscle bundles, collarbones, chest cavity and abdomen of Lux's neck is highly similar to the above-mentioned Dharma Protector on the outer wall of Jingzenji Temple, the difference is that the relationship between the pectoralis major muscle and the sternum is realistic and natural, the lower edge structure of the chest cavity is more certain and rigorous, and the structural form of the rectus abdominis muscle is also authentic and credible. The muscle structures such as biceps, triceps, and brachioradial muscles on Lux's arms have also been realistically depicted. It can be seen that when the craftsman carved this tall Dharma Protector, he should have absorbed the carving experience of the Dharma Protector on the outer wall of the cave door of Jingzen Temple, and may also refer to the human characteristics of real models. The chest of Lux is carved with slender and delicate chest ornaments, and the shoulders and chest hanging down the chest are knotted on a round plaque on the abdomen, and then gathered behind the outside of the two legs. The shoulders hang down the ends of the shawl, through the abdomen and thighs to the opposite arm, and then droop down at the sides of the body, which is typical of the Tang Dynasty bodhisattva shawl. The knee below the knee of both legs is exposed, and the structural morphology of the knee, shin bone of the calf, and gastrocnemius muscle at the back of the calf can be seen. Overall, this Protector's understanding of the structure of the human body has reached a new level.
Figure 21 ˉ Luoyang Longmen Grottoes Fengxian Temple left wall Tang protector Lux
The Longmen Grottoes Gaoping Junwang Cave was roughly completed in the early years of the Tang Kaiyuan Dynasty[22], and the chests of the Dharma Protectors on both sides of the outer wall of the cave gate did not show ornaments such as chest ornaments and Yingluo, so the upper body was completely and clearly presented. Taking the Dharma Protector on the right side of the outer wall of the cave door of the King of Gaoping County as an example (Fig. 22-1, Fig. 22-2), the statue is like a bun, wearing a low crown, and the facial features are diffuse, but you can feel the rough shape of the Lux's head and the meticulous carving technique. Lux's neck is extremely thick, the Adam's apple and raised muscle bundles are clearly shaped, the trapezius muscles on both shoulders are raised upwards like small round mounds, and the latter feature is highly realistic, which is not seen on the left protector of Fengxian Temple. The structure of the chest and abdominal cavity of this protector basically inherits the modeling characteristics of the protector on the left wall of Fengxian Temple, but a row of small oblong meat balls is sculpted on the sternum, and it bites with the pectoralis major muscles on both sides, forming a strong visual perception. The deltoid muscle of Lux's upper arm is divided into three bundles, which are combined with the biceps and lateral triceps muscles on the inside of the upper arm to form a powerful muscle group, which is slightly different from the modern sense of muscle anatomy, but more fully represents the imagination and expressiveness of the craftsmen.
Figure 22-1 ˉ Luoyang Longmen Grottoes Gaoping Junwang Cave Gate on the right side of the outer wall of the Protector Warrior
Figure 22-2 ˉ Luoyang Longmen Grottoes Gaoping Junwang Cave Door on the right side of the protective force naked imaginary picture
Relatively speaking, the realism and integrity of the Dharma Protector on the right side of the outer wall of the Gaoping Junwang Cave Gate of Longmen Grottoes is the highest among the Tang Dynasty cave protectors, so comparing the image with real male body and anatomical drawings (Figure 23) can yield some quantifiable results. By comparison, the morphology of the neck, shoulder deltoids, pectoralis major, serratus anterior, and lower edge of the chest cavity are generally consistent with real human anatomy; The rectus abdominis and external oblique muscles are also similar to the real human structure, only the oval small meat ball on the sternum handle in the middle of the two pectoralis major muscles is a subjective fabrication structure of the craftsman, and the craftsman may want to enhance the sense of strength of the muscles through this structure and visually enhance the force value of the Protector.
Figure 23 ˉ Diagram of male muscle morphology and muscle anatomy (from Udis Charins and Sandis Kondraz: "Art Human Body Structure (Essence Edition)", translated by Huang Chaogui, Publishing House of Electronics Industry, 2021, page 47)
In other Tang Dynasty cave niches other than the Longmen Grottoes, there are still many Dharma Protectors, such as the Dharma Protectors on the south side of the west niche of Cave 206 of the Mogao Grottoes (Fig. 24), which is a statue completed by the early Tang Dynasty. He wears a low crown, his eyebrows are round, and his mouth is open as if he is roaring. Lux's neck, collarbone, chest muscles, and abdominal muscles are all stretched to highlight Lux's Kong Wu strength. The relationship between the deltoid muscle mass of the upper arm is clear, and the shape of the biceps and triceps is also reflected, and the two hands that clench the fists pull the muscle bundles on the back of the hand and the wrist, this highly tense muscle shape makes the sense of strength of Lux effectively highlighted, from which the subjectivity of the craftsman's understanding of human muscles can also be clearly felt. Compared with the Dharma Protector on the outside of the gate of the Jingshan Temple of Longmen Grottoes, this early Tang Lux of Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes has muscles and is more fierce, while the muscle structure of the Longmen Grotto Cave Niche is more reasonable and rigorous, with the atmosphere of the imperial capital, and a slightly elegant temperament.
Figure 24 ˉ Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes, Tang Protector on the south side of the west niche of Cave 206 (from Liu Yongzeng's "The Complete Works of the Dunhuang Grottoes, Statue Volume", plate 95)
The Dharma Protector (Fig. 25-1, Fig. 25-2) on the north side of the west niche of Cave 194 of the Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang is a statue completed in the Middle Tang Dynasty, with a bun like a head combed with petals, wearing a short crown, and facial features are basically the same as those on the outside and south side of the west niche of Cave 206 of the Mogao Grottoes, and the muscle shape of the chest cavity has undergone obvious changes. There are 4 raised flesh bumps at the sternal peduncle of Lux, and the lower edge of the ribcage is two thick oval-like lumps, these raised lumps are not very coordinated, and the junction between the abdomen and the thoracic cavity is relatively stiff. In addition, the muscular structure of Lux's upper arms is also relatively messy. On the whole, although the chest cavity, muscle tissue of the upper arm, and abdominal shape of this statue are similar to those of the outer wall of the cave gate of the king of Gaoping Junwang in Longmen Grotto, it is obviously stiffer and more rigid than the latter, which is obviously the result of the subjective reprocessing of the craftsman on the basis of the Central Plains statue powder.
Figure 25-1 ˉ Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes Cave 194 West Niche Outer North Side Protector (from Liu Yongzeng's "Dunhuang Grottoes Complete Collection and Statue Volume", plate 185)
Figure 25-2 ˉ Imaginary picture of the naked body of the protector on the north side outside the west niche of Cave 194 of the Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang
In Guangyuan and Ba Zhong in Sichuan, a large number of Tang Dynasty cave niches were excavated, most of which were influenced by the statues of Chang'an, the capital city and Luoyang, the eastern capital, so the style of statues was similar to the examples of the two places. Examples such as the Dharma Protector in the eighth year of the Tang Kaiyuan (720) on both sides of the 214th niche of the Thousand Buddha Cliff in Guangyuan are examples of the influence of the statues of the Tang Dynasty Cave Lux in the Longmen Grottoes. Take the right protector (Fig. 26), for example, the figure wears a low crown, a square face, round eyebrows, square lips, and a mighty face. Lux is bare, the chest muscles are clearly defined, the lower edge of the chest cavity is an oval flesh bump, the abdominal muscles are full and flat, the deltoid muscles on the arms are composed of three bundles of muscles, and the biceps, brachioradial muscles and other accessory muscle bundles are also quite realistic. Lux's legs are also exposed below the knee, and the shinbone, gastrocnemius muscles and peripheral muscle bundles of the calves are clearly revealed. Lux's bare upper body, arms and legs are highly similar to those on both sides of the cave gate of Gaoping Junwang in Longmen Grottoes, showing the commonality of the two places.[23] However, the muscle structure of the Guangyuan instance is obviously more stylized, and the muscle shape is rigid, which is clearly different from the real human structure.
Figure 26 ˉ Protector of the Dharma in the eighth year of Tang Kaiyuan (720) on the right side of the 214th niche of the Thousand Buddha Cliff in Guangyuan
In addition to the cave statues, some single statues of Lux have also been unearthed in various places, which are worth paying attention to. Some individual statues reflect a high level of modeling, and the understanding and expression of the human body structure are not only similar to the important cave statue styles in the capital, but also can appear some new characteristics on this basis.
The remnants of the statue of Tang Baishi Lux (Fig. 27) collected by Foguang Temple on Wutaishan have some damage to the face, but you can see the full forehead, round eyes, and the structure and undulations of the face. Lux is bare, arms are absent, neck is thick and short, chest has bead-like chest ornaments, chest muscles are extremely full, the lower edge of the chest cavity is also round and thick, the structural relationship between the abdominal cavity and the chest cavity is clear, and the abdomen is full of volume. Compared with the classic Longmen Grottoes Tang Dynasty Cave Protector, this white stone statue is superior in the physical expression of the characters and the sense of human volume, reflecting the new look of local statues outside the capital.
Figure 27 ˉ Remnants of the statue of Tang Baishi collected by Foguang Temple on Mount Wutai ˉ Collection of Shanxi Museum
Unearthed in the underground palace of Jingzhi Temple in Dingzhou, the gilt bronze Lux of the Tang dynasty (Fig. 28) is a masterpiece that combines power and imagination. Lux wears a crown on his head, rough facial features, a thick neck, a broad chest, thick muscles, and a sense of strength in the muscles of his abdomen. The muscles of Lux's arms grew like lotus roots, and the muscles of his calves were extremely exaggerated. Lux's muscles are exaggerated, but not bloated, thanks to the wide shoulders and thin waist, and the measured proportions of the human body. It can be seen that although the basic structure of the human body of this Lux is similar to the above-mentioned Tang Dynasty classic Lux statue in the Longmen Grottoes, its more exaggerated muscle form and super artistic appeal than the latter completely release the craftsman's imagination of physical strength, which can be described as a divine work.
Figure 28 ˉ The underground palace of Jingzhi Temple in Dingzhou was unearthed by a gilded bronze protector of the fifth dynasty of Tang
epilogue
Taiwanese scholar Yang Rubin took Mencius's teachings as the core, synthesized the main theories on the body view before and after Mencius, and believed that there were two origins and three schools of Confucian body view in the pre-Qin period. The two sources refer to the view of the majestic body centered on the Zhou rite (or the view of the prestige of the body) centered on the Zhou rite, and the view of blood qi centered on medicine (or the view of blood qi in the treatment of speech); The three schools refer to Mencius's view of practicing form with Mencius's emphasis on the structure of "form-qi-mind", the concept of natural gasification that emphasizes that nature and human beings are both products of gasification, and the concept of etiquette and righteousness that emphasizes the essence of human beings, the body and the construction of society are inseparable[24]. This Confucian view of the body has had a profound impact on later generations, especially the view of practicing shape, the concept of natural gasification, and the concept of etiquette and righteousness, which has influenced Confucians since its formation in the pre-Qin period until the Song Dynasty and beyond, which is of great profound significance in ancient society with Confucianism as the mainstream. This Confucian view of the body contains extremely rich philosophical connotations, which obviously does not belong to the same category as the cognition of physical practice discussed in this article, but it can affect the artist's or sculptor's representation of the human form at the conceptual level, if the former belongs to metaphysical abstract discussion, the latter belongs to metaphysical figurative practice. Therefore, the creation of ancient figure paintings or sculptures under the influence of the Confucian view of the body did not pay attention to the objective embodiment of the human body (different from the figurative reproduction of the human body tradition of ancient Greece), which happened to be the theme that ancient Greece continued to practice from the ancient style period to the classical period. Ancient Greek art underwent a transformation between the Archaic and Classical periods of about four hundred years, during which time the ancient Greek artists pioneered a method of reproducing the human body (flesh), which not only separated ancient Greek art from Eastern art, but also made it a basic reference for Western naturalistic plastic art.[25] It is worth noting that the ancient Chinese tradition of plastic arts[26] which did not pay attention to the objective embodiment of the human body was constantly challenged in the development of Buddhist statue art, and the intermingling of the two statue traditions promoted the prosperity of Buddhist art and also rewrote the development direction of ancient Chinese art history. During this period, as one of the representative cultural symbols of the fusion and development of Chinese and Western cultures, Dharma Protector vividly recorded and translated this process of change.
The development of ancient Chinese sculpture (statue-making) also benefited from the prosperity of painting theory. Chinese painting became mature during the Wei and Jin dynasties, and the sages put forward propositions such as "conveying the divine portrayal", "imagining the wonderful", "vivid charm", and "creating the heart and master", with the intention of pursuing a transcendent and vulgar beauty, which is expressed in the painting technique is informal and pays attention to the charm [27]. Under the influence of this aesthetic thought, paintings that focus on conveying the spirit and artistic imagination are sought after by the world, while the Buddhist iconographic tradition that focuses on figurative representation is obviously not in line with it. However, the introduction of Buddhist art and the participation of a large number of painters in the creation of Buddhist paintings (statues) at that time eventually contributed to the prosperity of Buddhist art in the Northern and Southern Dynasties. During this period, the separate expression of Dharma Protectors on both sides of the cave door in Binyang became fixed, and the Gongyi Grottoes continued to develop this rule. The combination of the Dharma Protector King and the Dharma Protector on both sides of the same cave niche was not clear until the late Northern Dynasty, and it was not clear until the Sui Dynasty. In this process, the face of the Dharma Protector is always the focus of the model, the facial features are rough, a very brave look, the muscle bundles and collarbone structure of the neck are also clearly displayed, but the body appears in a subtle and flat state in most cases, and the accessories on the body are also consistent with the statues of Bodhisattvas of the same period. However, the muscular form and subjective imagination of the Tang Dynasty protector statues completely rewrote the previous intentional avoidance of the body, the reasons for which are, first, the further development of figurative realism art, and second, the reintroduction of foreign figurative art, and most importantly, the Tang Dynasty image-makers have departed from the abstract Confucian view of the body after more than 300 years of portrait practice in the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, and were able to face the human body squarely, and create a modeling style that combines objective observation and subjective imagination. It can be seen that an in-depth understanding of the body view of the Dharma Protector has important reference significance for understanding the development of the figurative concept and the physical concept in ancient Chinese sculpture.
Note: Part of this article was read at the academic seminar "Recreating Statues: Cave Art from the Perspective of Contemporary Culture" held at Xiangtangshan Grottoes. The pictures in the article do not appear as the author's drawing, and the nude sketches are drawn by the author.
Fund: This paper is the phased result of the National Social Science Foundation Art Project "Research on the Sculpture of Cave Figures in the Northern Dynasties of China" (approval number: 22BF093).
Exegesis:
[1] As early as the Stone Age, people's understanding of the gods of heaven and earth in the Central Plains and surrounding areas was mostly embodied in jade and corresponding rituals, rather than the manifestation of gods in specific human figures as in ancient Egypt and ancient Greece; The popularity of bronzes in the Xia, Shang and Zhou dynasties became a characteristic of the times, and the worship of ancestors and gods by ancestors at that time was also completed through cherished ritual vessels and specific rituals. In the meantime, figurative and personified statues of deities are absent. This concept of artistic creation that emphasizes meaning over shape has greatly influenced the direction of Chinese art development.
[2] The Japanese scholar Akira Miyaji pointed out in "Nirvana and Maitreya Iconography" that these (Gandhara art) gods can see Heracles, Dionysus, Poseidon in the Greek and Roman systems, the medicine fork of the Indian system, and the princely statues of the Central Asian system. See Miyaji Akira, Nirvana and Maitreya Pictoriology, translated by Li Ping, Cultural Relics Press, 2009, p. 103.
[3] Zhang Jianyu, "Heracles and the Buddhist Protector: Greek Armament in Gandhara Art," Fine Arts Research, No. 2, 2022. He Ping: "Hercules: From Greek Hercules to Buddha's Bodyguard", Collection, No. 2, 2020.
[4] Yi Lidu: "Three Statues of Northern Wei Taihe and Six Years of Shakya Unearthed in Cheng'an County, Handan", Dunhuang Studies, No. 3, 2012.
[5] Li Jingjie, "The Eastern Transmission of Gandhara Cultural Factors as Reflected in the Western Qin Images of Cave 169 of Bingling Temple", Dunhuang Studies, No. 3, 2017.
[6] Changqing: "Re-study of the Carving of Buddhist Stories in Cave 6 of Yungang Grottoes", Fine Arts Research, No. 2, 2023.
[7] Zhang Jie, "A Study on the Protectors of the Yungang Grottoes," Master's Thesis, Shanxi University, 2019, p. 42.
[8] Regarding the staging of the Yungang Grottoes, there is currently a relatively consistent understanding of the periodization, that is, the first phase (around 460-470) includes caves 16-20; The second phase (around 470-around 494) includes the 7th and 8th double caves, the 9th and 10th double caves, the 11th-13th group caves, the 1st and 2nd double caves, the 5th and 6th double caves, etc.; The third period (circa 494 - around 524) includes the western caves and the first and second phases of the caves. Among them, the second phase of the cave is divided into front and back sections, the first section of the cave statue continues the clothing form of the first phase of the cave example, the latter section of the cave corresponds to the Northern Wei Xiaowen Emperor's clothing reform and wears a new form of clothing, the Buddha statue is draped in a belt-style cassock, and the bodhisattva is represented as a shawl.
[9] Miyaji combed through the image of the god Vajra in the Gandhara Nirvana diagram, from which it can be seen that his hair retains distinctive characteristics of ancient Greek and Roman figures. See Miyaji, Nirvana and Maitreya Iconography, p. 102, fig. 53. The shape of the curly hair of the protector and the furrow-like bun in the four niches on the lower four niches of the central pillar of Cave 6 of the Yungang Grottoes should be the localized style of the Vajra God's bun in Gandhara art.
[10] Zhang Zhuo, ed., The Complete Works of Yungang Grottoes, Volume 11, Qingdao Press, 2017, plate 204.
[11] Huang Wenzhi, "Analysis of the Modeling of Buddha Statues Carved in Stone from the Late Northern Wei to the Eastern Wei Dynasty in Central Henan", Dunhuang Academic Series, No. 1, 2015.
[12] Gansu Provincial Cultural Relics Task Force Bingling Temple Cultural Relics Depository, ed.: "Chinese Grottoes, Yongjing Bingling Temple", Cultural Relics Publishing House, 1989, plate 81.
[13] The so-called door god is the god who guards the portal, and the Chinese door god appeared as early as the Qin and Han literature, and there are images of gods and Yulei in the Han portrait stone. See Li Beilei, "New Year Painting: Starting from the "Door God"", Art Observation, No. 4, 2023.
[14] Huang Wenzhi, "Analysis of the Shape of Stone Carved Buddha Statues from Eastern Wei to Northern Qi in Xiangtangshan Grottoes", Art Exploration, No. 4, 2021.
[15] Yang Baoshun, "Henan Anyang Lingquan Temple Grottoes and Xiaonanhai Grottoes," Cultural Relics, No. 4, 1988.
[16] Zhang Ruoyu, "The Monument of the Yique Buddha Shrine and Qianxi Temple and Binyang Cave," Cultural Relics, No. 1, 1980.
[17] Wen Yucheng, "Longmen Tang Grottoes in Chronicles," in Longmen Cultural Relics Depository and Department of Archaeology, Peking University, ed., Chinese Grottoes, Longmen Grottoes II, Cultural Relics Press, 2012, p. 176.
[18] Longmen Cultural Relics Depository, Department of Archaeology, Peking University, ed.: Chinese Grottoes, Longmen Grottoes II, plate 21.
[19] For the excavation time of the Great Buddha Cave (Cave 28) of Guangyuan Huangze Temple, see Wang Jianping and Wang Dong, "Examination of the Times of Cave 28 of Guangyuan Huangze Temple", Sichuan Cultural Relics, No. 1, 2004.
[20] Wen Yucheng, "Longmen Tang Grottoes in Chronicles," in Longmen Cultural Relics Depository and Department of Archaeology, Peking University, ed., Chinese Grottoes, Longmen Grottoes II, p. 188.
[21] Ibid., p. 189.
[22] Ibid., p. 209.
[23] Guangyuan is located in the north of Sichuan Province, in the upper reaches of the Jialing River, within the intersection of the southwest cultural circle, the Ganlong cultural circle and the Central Plains cultural circle, of which the Jinniu Road, the large passage from Hanzhong to Shudi, has most of the distance in Guangyuan, and the statue style of the eastern capital Luoyang and the western capital Chang'an can also be introduced to Shudi.
[24] Yang Rubin, "Confucian View of the Body", Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, 2019, pp. 8-9.
[25] Robin Osborne, "Antiquity and Greek Art in the Classical Period," translated by Hu Xiaolan, Shanghai People's Publishing House, 2015, p. 17.
[26] The terracotta warriors unearthed from the mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor also have a high degree of realism, but this concept of realism and the artistic tradition formed by ancient Greek sculpture do not follow a unified standard, and the emergence of the terracotta army is also an isolated phenomenon, without precedent and inheritance, so it does not belong to the scope of this article.
[27] Fan Bo, History of Chinese Painting, Jiangxi Fine Arts Publishing House, 2018, p. 175.
(Huang Wenzhi, Ph.D. in Fine Arts, is an associate professor at the Department of Sculpture, School of Fine Arts, Tianjin Academy of Fine Arts.) ）
This article was originally published in Art Grand View, Issue 7, 2023, pages 70~77.